UC-NRLF 


71    3E3 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


PROFITABLE 

STOCK  FEEDING 

A    BOOK    FOR    THE    FARMER 


By 
HOWARD  R.  SMITH 

Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry^ 

University  of  Nebraska 

Investigator  in  Animal  Feeding, 

Nebraska  Experiment  Station 


THIRD  EDITION 


^    OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


PUBLISHED   BY   THK   AUTHOR 

1908 
LINCOLN,  NEBRASKA 


COPYRIGHT,  1905 
BY  H.  R.  SMITH 


PfttSS  OP 

GEO,  F.  MCKIERNAN  A  co. 

79-81   W.  VAN  BUMN  »T. 
CHICA6O 


PREFACE. 

Profitable  Stock  Feeding,  if  the  book  deserves 
such  a  title,  had  its  inception  in  a  series  of  type- 
written lectures  prepared  for  winter  course  students 
in  the  University  of  Nebraska  School  of  Agricul- 
ture. With  a  constantly  increasing  enrollment  in 
the  stock  feeding  classes  (the  number  in  1905  pass- 
ing the  two  hundred  mark)  it  seemed  best  to  pub- 
lish in  permanent  form  a  rather  full  discussion  of 
the  subject,  covering  the  ground  in  a  way  that 
would  make  it  easily  comprehended  by  even  the 
least  experienced,  whether  in  the  science  or  practice 
of  feeding  animals.  The  writer  was  further  en- 
couraged to  undertake  such  a  task  because  of  an 
enlarged  correspondence  with  stock  feeders,  who, 
by  proposing  questions  which  presented  themselves 
in  their  feeding  operations,  have  manifested  more 
than  Usual  interest  and  confidence  in  what  may  be 
called  the  scientific  side  of  stock  feeding. 

For  several  years  previous  to  engaging  in  college 
and  experiment  station  work,  the  writer  was  a  prac- 
tical stock  feeder,  in  the  business  for  profit.  It  was 
an  early  realization  of  the  financial  advantages  that 
would  come  from  a  knowledge  of  foods  and  the  proc- 
esses Of  nutrition  in  animals  that  led  to  a  more  or 
less  extended  inquiry  into  the  subject  as  a  science. 
Later  experiences  in  the  field  of  investigation  have 
made  this  the  more  evident.  Each  year,  as  the  re- 
sults of  experiments  are  compiled  and  the  work  of 
other  stations  reviewed,  new  proof  is  added  to  the 
fact  that  a  careful  system  of  feeding,  in  which  na- 
ture's laws  are  given  recognition,  is  capable  of  pro- 
ducing, to  a  marked  degree,  larger  and  more  prof- 
itable gains  than  indiscriminate  feeding.  It  has 
been  proved  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  cost  of  pro- 


189770 


VI  PREFACE. 

ducing  gains  may  be  reduced  from  20  to  30  per  cent 
by  properly  compounding  rations.  Such  evidence  is 
forthcoming  from  all  stations  of  the  Middle 
West,  where  feeding  questions  have  been  given 
most  consideration.  Should  a  farmer  lose  by  dis- 
ease one  animal  out  of  every  five,  he  would  feel 
much  concerned.  The  equivalent  of  this  is  hap- 
pening on  many  farms  today  through  injudicious 
feeding. 

If  stock  feeding  is  to  be  conducted  with  profit, 
there  must  be  put  into  the  work  a  high  order  of 
intelligence.  How  can  it  be  otherwise?  The  feeder 
is  in  constant  touch  with  nature's  laws,  which  must 
not  be  ignored.  He  is  dealing  with  a  wide  range 
of  foods,  differing  essentially  in  physical  character, 
in  composition,  and  in  digestibility.  He  is  further- 
more dealing  with  an  animal  mechanism  infinitely 
more  complex  in  the  arrangement  of  parts  and  the 
performance  of  functions  than  anything  ever 
wrought  by  man.  If  all  foods  and  all  classes  of 
animals  were  alike,  the  problem  would  be  a  simple 
one.  If  all  food  consisted  of  the  natural  herbage, 
which  at  one  time  grew  uncultivated,  animals  would 
get  for  themselves  more  nearly  what  the  system 
requires.  But  the  artificial  propagation  of  numer- 
ous forms  of  food  (some  kinds  produced  in  greater 
abundance  than  others)  has  made  the  economical 
utilization  of  such  foods  a  complex  science.  Nor 
can  profitable  stock  feeding  be  looked  upon  as  a 
science  merely.  It  is  a  business,  too,  in  the  sense 
that  one  who  is  engaged  in  the  work  is  each  year 
confronted  with  a  change  in  prices  on  foods,  which 
compels  him  to  keep  posted  on  market  quotations 
in  order  to  be  able  to  select  those  which  go  farthest 
for  the  money.  In  the  following  chapters  market 
prices  in  their  relation  to  profitable  production  are 
given  the  consideration  they  deserve. 


PREFACE.  Vll 

While  we  are  to  be  congratulated  for  the  light 
that  has  been  thrown  upon  feeding  problems  by  ex- 
tensive work  in  the  realm  of  research  carried  on 
during  comparatively  recent  years,  both  at  home 
and  abroad,  there  is  a  great  work  yet  to  be  done. 
The  facts  presented  in  this  book  are  largely  based 
upon  scientific  investigations  carried  on  to  the  date 
of  this  writing,  coupled  with  observations  made  by 
the  writer  during  a  period  of  practical  experience 
in  feeding  while  associated  with  his  father,  the  late 
F.  H.  Smith,  an  extensive  stock  feeder  for  a  period 
of  forty  years,  whose  wise  counsel  has  been  of  ines- 
timable value.  An  attempt  has  been  made  to  begin 
at  the  bottom  of  the  subject  of  stock  feeding  and 
proceed  in  some  logical  order.  While  the  use  of  cer- 
tain technical  terms  is  unavoidable,  the  aim  has  been 
to  present  the  facts  in  a  straightforward  manner 
clothing  them  in  the  simplest  language.  It  is  hoped 
that  the  contents  will  be  readable,  and  instructive 
to  any  and  all  who  are  interested  in  the  feeding  of 
live  stock. 

It  is  out  of  the  province  of  a  book  on  feeding 
to  include  diseases  of  animals,  but  it  seemed  best  to 
treat  briefly  of  certain  intestinal  parasites  found  in 
sheep,  inasmuch  as  this  is  a  common  disorder,  but 
one  easily  guarded  against.  The  thanks  of  the 
writer  are  due  Mr.  Joseph  E.  Wing,  of  Ohio,  for 
the  preparation  of  the  chapter  on  parasites  in  sheep, 
and  for  reviewing  other  copy  on  sheep.  The  part 
devoted  to  sheep  feeding  was  also  reviewed  by 
Hon.  Peter  Jansen,  of  Nebraska,  well  known  for 
his  success  in  feeding  sheep  on  a  large  scale. 

In  recognition  of  the  immensity  of  the  poultry 
industry  in  the  United  States,  and  its  possibilities 
under  careful  management,  a  few  chapters  are  de- 
voted to  this  important  subject.  Farm  flocks  of 
poultry  are  usually  under  the  management  of 


Viil  PREFACE. 

women,  who,  because  of  their  more  painstaking 
efforts  in  looking  after  the  details  connected  with 
the  rearing  of  young  chickens,  turkeys,  etc.,  succeed 
best.  Poultry  raising  is  a  pleasant  and  profitable 
occupation  for  the  woman  who  has  the  time  and  in- 
clination for  it.  The  chapters  in  this  book  were 
prepared  by  a  sister  of  the  writer,  Miss  M.  L.  Smith, 
who  has  been  unusually  successful  in  the  manage- 
ment of  poultry  and  as  a  farmers'  institute  lecturer 
upon  the  subject. 

The  leguminous  hay  crops — alfalfa,  cowpeas  and 
soy  beans — are  new  to  many  farmer^  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  growth  of  one  or  more  of  these  or 
the  better  known  clover  plant  is  so   essential  on 
farms  devoted  to  stock  feeding,  it  has  been  thought 
best  to  publish  in  the  appendix  something  concern- 
ing the  culture  of  the  three  first  mentioned.     For 
the  discussion  of  cowpea  and  soy  bean  growing  the 
writer  is  indebted  to  Professor  D.  H.  Otis,  formerly 
of  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station,  now  connected 
with  the  Wisconsin   Experiment   Station.     Alfalfa 
growing  is   described  by  Mir.  E.  G.  Montgomery, 
who  has  given   special  attention  to  alfalfa   ii?   his 
work  in  the  crop  department  of  the  Nebraska  Ex- 
periment Station.     Acknowledgment  is  also  made 
to  Professor  T.  L.  Haecker,  of  the  Minresota  Ex- 
periment Station,  for  reviewing  the  manuscript  on 
dairy  cattle;  to  my  associate,  Director  E.  A.  Bur- 
nett, for  reviewing  that  part  concerning  the  feed- 
ing of  breeding  swine ;  to  Mr.  Fred  Rankin,  of  Illi- 
nois, for  reviewing  other  chapters  on  swine  feed- 
ing; to  Professor  Rice,  of  the  Cornell  (New  York) 
Experiment  Station,  for  reviewing  the  copy  on  poul- 
try;  and  to  Professor  W.  L.  Carlyle,  of  the  Colo- 
rado Experiment  Station,  for  reviewing  the  chap- 
ters on  horse  feeding. 

H.  R.  SMITH. 
Lincoln,  Nebr.,  December  15,  1905. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER.  PAGE. 

I.     Introduction — Live  Stock  in  Its  Eelation  to 

the  Farm '. 3 

PART  I. — GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  IN  STOCK  FEEDING. 

II.     The  Products  from  Feeding  Animals 7 

III.  The  Composition  of  Foods 12 

IV.  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Foods 19 

PART  II. — MILK  PRODUCTION. 

V.     The  Dairy  Cow 37 

VI.     Fundamentals  in  Feeding  the  Dairy  Cow. ...  48 

VII.     Winter  Eations  in  the  Corn  Belt 55 

VIII.     Feeding  Without  the  Legumes  for  Koughage. .  80 

IX.     Summer  Pasture  for  Dairy  Cows 97 

X.     Rearing  Calves  on  Skim-milk 103 

PART  III. — -BEET  CATTLE. 

XI.     Beef  Type 113 

XII.     Shelter    and    Feed    Lot    Facilities    for    Beef 

Cattle 143 

XIII.  Baby  Beef 150      . 

XIV.  Feeding  Yearling  Steers  for  Beef 156 

XV.     Fattening  Steers  with  Grain  on  Pasture 165      $jj 

XVI.     Winter  Feeding  Eange  Two-year-old  Steers..  172      | 

XVII.     Corn  Substitutes,  Protein   Concentrates   and  y 
the  Preparation  of  Foods  for  Fattening 

Cattle 186     V 

PART  IV. — SHEEP.  i;. 

XVIII.     Mutton  Type 191      £ 

XIX.     The  Farmer 's  Breeding  Flock 199 

XX.     Fattening  Lambs  in  the  Fall 208 

XXI.     Fattening  Lambs  in  Early  Winter 220 

XXII.     Fattening  Eange  Lambs  or  Natives  which 

have  not  had  Grain  on  Pasture 232 

iz 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTEB.  PAGE. 

XXIII.  Parasites  in  Sheep « 248 

PART  V. — SWINE. 

XXIV.  Types  of  Hogs 253 

XXV.     The  Breeding  Herd  of  Swine 261 

XXVI.     Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Fall 273 

XXVII.     Fattening  Pigs  in  Winter 280 

XXVIII.     Corn  Substitutes  for  Swine 293 

XXIX.     Protein  Concentrates  and  the  Preparation  of 

Foods  for   Swine 298 

PART  VI. — FARM  POULTRY. 

XXX.     Types  of  Fowls 309 

XXXI.     Raising  Little  Chicks 315 

XXXII.     Care  of  Grown  Fowls  in  Summer 328 

XXXIII.  Care  of  Hens  in  Winter 333 

XXXIV.  Turkeys   and  Guineas 346 

PART  VII. — HORSES. 
XXXV.     Types  of  Horses — Summer  Feeding  for  Work  357 

XXXVI.     Winter  Rations  for  Work  Horses 368 

Appendix 381 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

Kernel  of  Corn  Showing  Cellular  Structure 17 

Food  Case 18 

Food    Chart 26,  27 

Good  Dairy  Type 41 

Inferior  Dairy  Type 41 

Holstein  Cow 43 

Shorthorn- Jersey   Cow 43 

Shorthorn   Milch   Cow 43 

Silo    69 

Corn  and  Cowpeas  for  Silage 69 

Ears  of  Corn  Showing  Proper  Stage  of  Eipeness  for  Silage.   71 

Dairy  Cows  on  Pasture 102 

Calf    Stanchions 112 

Angus  Steer  (good  type)  Showing  Eetail  Cuts  of  Beef....  116 

Jersey  Steer  (inferior  type) 116 

Angus  and  Jersey  Steers — Rear  View 117 

Rib  Cuts  of  Angus  and  Jersey  Steers ; 117 

Good  Feeder  but  Inferior  Butcher  Steer 122 

Inferior  Steer  from  Viewpoint  of  Both  Butcher  and  Feeder.  122 
Grade  Hereford  Steers.     Comparison  of  Good  and  Inferior 

Types    124 

Challenger — Grand  Champion  Steer,  1903 128,  129 

Shamrock — Grand  Champion  Steer,  1902 131 

Clear  Lake  Jute — Grand  Champion  Steer,  1904 131 

Pat  Ryan — Champion  Galloway  Bull 135 

Choice  Goods — Champion  Shorthorn  Bull 137 

Prime  Lad — Champion  Hereford  Bull 137 

Bugler— Angus  Bull,  Showing  Masculine  Character 141 

Shorthorn  Two-year-old  Steers  from  Milking  Cows 142 

Challenger  II  and  Stanton 149 

Angus    Baby   Beeves 155 

Range-bred  Hereford  Calves 159 

Grade  Angus  Steers  Grain-fed  on  Pasture 168 

ii 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Two-year-old  Steers  Fed  with  and  without  Oil  Meal 176 

Rations  Required  for  One  Pound  of  Gain 177 

Range  Cattle  Scene 190 

Typical  Specimens  of  Four  Mutton  Breeds  of  Sheep 198 

Ewes  and  Lambs  in  Pasture 195 

Shropshire-Merino  Breeding  Ewes 201 

Woodland  Farm  Scene 211 

Sheep  in  Alfalfa. .  .212 

Sheep  Feeding  Yards 221 

Range  Yearlings 222 

Range  Scenes  near  Forbes,  Wyoming 233 

Sheep  Feeding  in  the  Semi-Arid  West 242 

Lard  Type — English  Champion  Berkshire  Boar 254 

Bacon  Type — English  Champion  Tamworth  Boar 254 

Portable  Hog  House 263 

Duroc- Jersey  Brood  Sow  and  Pigs 272 

Poland-Chinas  in   the  Feed-lot 279 

Rack  for  Feeding  Uncut  Alfalfa  Hay  to  Hogs 288 

Rack  Design  for  Feeding  Alfalfa  Hay  to  Hogs .289 

Pens  for  Winter  Pig-feeding  Tests 292 

Laying  Type — Single  Comb  Brown  Leghorns 312 

General-purpose  Type — Single  Comb  Buff  Orpingtons 313 

Meat   Type — Partridge    Cochins 314 

Framework  of  Colony  Brooder  House 317 

Colony  Brooder  House 319 

Curtain    Front   House 334 

Curtain  Front  House — Interior  View 335 

Scratching   Shed   House 337 

Poultry    House , 339 

Double   House 341 

Inexpensive   Poultry  House 343 

Poultry  House — Interior  View 345 

Diseased  Organs  of  Turkey  Affected  with  Hepatitis 348 

Pair  of  Mammoth  Bronze  Turkeys 352 

types   of  Horses 360 

Clydesdales  Ready  for  Work 361 

Alfalfa,  Showing  Advantage  of  Early  Fall  Sowing 388 


INTRODUCTION 


CHAPTER  I. 

LIVE  STOCK  IN   ITS  RELATION  TO  THE 
FARM. 

Maintaining  Soil  Fertility. — One  thing  to  be  re- 
gretted in  our  American  agriculture  is  the  existing 
warfare  against  land  fertility.  This  is  particularly 
true  in  the  states  of  the  Middle  West.  Year  after 
year  millions  of  tons  of  vegetable  matter  contain- 
ing valuable  fertilizing  constituents  move  from 
these  states  to  distant  lands  never  to  be  returned. 
This  rapid  exodus  of  farm  crops  is  due  partly  to 
alluring  foreign  markets  for  grains;  partly  to  an 
aggressive  Western  spirit,  a  desire  to  elbow  in  and 
get  the  first  fruits  of  the  land  quickly,  regardless 
of  the  future. 

The  people  of  the  Old  World  have  acquired  a 
liking  for  bread  and  cakes  made  from  our  American 
corn,  and  they  are  now  feeding  this  grain  to  their 
live  stock.  Government  statistics  show  a  phenom- 
enal growth  in  popularity  for  this  American  cereal 
in  foreign  countries.  With  the  existing  market  con- 
ditions so  favorable,  it  is  not  surprising  that  lands 
adapted  for  corn  growing  are  now  being  used  more 
extensively  than  ever. 

The  large  production  of  corn  is  justifiable,  but  its 
transportation  to  other  lands  to  be  fed  put  is  not  a 
favorable  sign  for  the  future.  It  is  a  question  how 
long  this  outpour  of  grain  can  last  without  result- 


4  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

ing  finally  in  a  lamentable  deterioration  of  the  soil. 
It  is  a  question  of  duration  only,  as  it  is  bound  to 
come  sooner  or  later,  unless  something  is  put  back 
on  the  land. 

In  the  New  England  states  enormous  sums  are 
annually  expended  for  commercial  fertilizers.  The 
land  will  not  produce  satisfactorily  without  the  ap- 
plication of  plant  food  of  some  kind,  and  barnyard 
manure  is  not  available  in  sufficient  quantity.  The 
purchase  of  mineral  phosphates,  nitrates  and  potash 
salts  is  the  only  alternative.  In  Illinois,  Indiana 
and  adjacent  territory,  farms  which  have  been  pro- 
ducing grain  sold  through  the  elevator  year  after 
year  are  much  less  productive  than  those  which 
have  been  partly  devoted  to  the  rearing  of  live 
stock.  In  fact,  there  is  but  little  land  in  the  entire 
corn  belt  which  is  not  improved  today  by  the  ap- 
plication of  stable  manure. 

The  practice  of  selling  corn,  hay  and  other  farm 
<crops  from  the  land,  year  after  year,  results  in  a 
gradual  but  constant  loss  of  soil  fertility.  It  costs 
no  more  to  till  soil  which  will  produce  sixty  bush- 
els of  corn  per  acre  than  soil  which  is  so  worn  that 
it  will  produce  but  thirty  bushels.  Herein  is  a  fun- 
damental principle  in  farming,  and  one  of  the 
strongest  arguments  in  favor  of  live  stock  husband- 
ry. The  feeding  of  farm  animals  not  only  means  that 
85  to  90  per  cent  of  the  fertilizing  value  of  the  crops 
fed  can  be  returned  to  the  land,  but  also  that 
such  forage  crops  as  alfalfa,  clover  or  cowpeas  will  be 
grown  to  accompany  corn  feeding.  These  crops 
draw  from  the  air  more  nitrogen  than  is  sold  from 
the  land  in  the  shape  of  meat  or  milk  products—- 
the effect  of  which  is  a  building  up  rather  than  a 
tearing  down. 

Home  Market. — But  there  are  other  arguments 
in  favor  of  live  stock  husbandry  as  a  part  of  the 


LIVE  STOCK— RELATION   TO  FARM.  5 

business  of  farming.  It  provides  a  home  market 
for  the  crops  grown.  Feeding  live  stock  is  a  means 
of  condensing  a  product  to  about  one-eighth  of  its 
original  weight.  Seven  pounds  out  of  every  eight 
are  therefore  marketed  on  the  farm,  reducing  the 
freight  charges  for  transporting  grain  87^  per  cent, 
and  obviating1  the  usual  haul  to  the  local  market  or 
elevator.  If  the  Eastern  or  European  farmer  can  feed 
with  profit  corn  grown  in  the  Western  States,  then 
the  Western  farmer  may  feed  with  still  greater 
profit,  because  he  saves  a  large  part  of  the  trans- 
portation charges. 

Utilization  of  Cheap  Roughage. — Along  with 
grain  there  is  produced  on  farms  a  large  quantity 
of  coarse  fodder,  such  as  cornstalks,  straw,  etc. 
Such  forage  does  not  find  a  ready  market  because 
of  its  bulky  nature,  and  it  is  therefore  left  to  waste 
if  stock  is  not  kept  to  consume  it.  The  profits 
from  farming  are  greatly  enhanced  by  keeping 
stock  which  will  utilize  at  least  a  part  of  this  rough- 
ness. 

Distribution  of  Labor. — Another  consideration  of 
special  consequence  at  the  present  time  is  the  fact 
that  stock  feeding  distributes  labor  throughout  the 
year.  The  greater  demand  for  help  during  the 
growing  season  makes  farm  wages  higher  during 
the  summer  than  winter.  Since  stock  feeding  takes 
place  largely  during  the  winter  months,  employ- 
ment can  be  furnished  continuously.  Wages  per 
month  for  a  whole  year  should  be  less  than  for  a 
period  of  but  eight  months. 

Source  of  Enjoyment. — Beside  the  material  ad- 
vantages mentioned,  there  is  still  another,  which 
appeals  to  some  more  than  to  others.  It  is  the  per- 
sonal satisfaction  and  enjoyment  in  having  about 
the  farm-home  domestic  animals  which  have  learned 
to  be  submissive  and  docile  under  man's  control. 


6  PROFITABLE  STOCK   FEEDING* 

Nearly  every  farmer,  more  or  less  isolated  from 
society  as  he  is,  may  derive  no  little  pleasure  from 
the  ownership  of  animals.  This  is  especially  true 
with  those  who  take  pride  in  keeping  good  stock. 
Children  reared  in  such  environment  are  better  oc- 
cupied and  grow  to  be  broader  and  more  sympa- 
thetic than  when  there  are  no  animals  about  them. 
For  these,  and  other  reasons,  live  stock  husband- 
ry should  be  a  part  of  the  business  of  every  farmer. 
As  has  been  pointed  out,  if  by  feeding  live  stock 
no  more  than  elevator  prices  are  secured  for  the 
farm  crops  grown,  still  there  is  abundant  reason 
for  favoring  this  method  of  marketing  most  of  the 
farm  crops.  While  there  may  be  an  occasional  year 
when  less  than  elevator  prices  are  received,  the 
careful  feeder  is  more  often  able  to  secure  a  margin 
above  such  prices. 


PART  I 

GENERAL   PRINCIPLES    IN    STOCK 
FEEDING 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  PRODUCTS  FROM  FEEDING  ANIMALS. 

The  profits  to  be  derived  from  the  feeding  of 
stock  are  dependent  upon  two  leading  factors:  (i) 
the  amount  of  gain  or  increase  to  be  produced  at 
the  least  expense  for  food  consumed;  (2)  the  qual- 
ity of  the  finished  product. 

The  question  of  making  large  and  economical 
gains  is  very  largely  one  of  food  supply,  though 
some  animals  respond  more  readily  than  others — a 
matter  which  will  be  discussed  later  in  the  chapters 
on  quality,  or  type,  in  animals.  In  order  that  the 
relation  of  foods  to  animal  products  may  be  under- 
stood more  clearly,  it  will  be  well  first  to  learn  some- 
thing about  the  structural  character  and  composi- 
tion of  the  finished  products,  then  something  of  the 
foods  which  are  concerned  in  forming  them.  This 
is  fundamental  to  rational  stock  feeding. 

Farm  animals  are  living  factories  in  which  food 
in  its  crude  state  is  transformed  into  meat,  milk 
and  eggs  for  human  consumption,  wool  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  fabrics,  and  energy  for  the  use  of  man 
in  performing  various  kinds  of  work. 

The  material  products  mentioned  differ  in  physi- 
cal character,  yet  they  are  similar  in  composition. 
All  are  complex,  made  up,  as  they  are,  of  various 
compounds,  each  of  which  consists  of  chemical  ele- 


8  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING* 

ments  bound  together.  In  the  process  of  digestion 
and  assimilation  all  may  come  from  a  single  food- 
stuff, but  they  come  more  often  from  a  combination 
of  two  or  more.  Foodstuffs  must,  then,  contain  all 
the  elements  found  in  the  various  products  into 
which  the  foods  are  converted. 

Meat  carcasses  consist  of  four  principal  parts. 
Fatty  tissue  amounts  to  41.65  per  cent  of  the  entire 
carcass;  lean  tissue,  11.97  Per  cent;  mineral  matter, 
mostly  bone,  3.26  per  cent;  and  water,  43.12  per 
cent.  These  figures  are  the  averages  for  the  car- 
casses of  all  fat  animals.  Fatty  tissues,  including 
lard  and  tallow,  are  composed  of  three  principal  fat 
compounds  called  palmatine,  stearine  and  olein. 
These,  like  other  compounds,  consist  of  a  group  of 
chemical  elements  bound  together  in  certain 
definite  proportions.  In  the  fat  known  as  palma- 
tine, the  proportion  by  volume  is  C  (carbon) 
51  parts,  H  (hydrogen)  98  parts,  and  O  (oxygen)  6 
parts,  written  C51H98Oe.  The  lean  of  meat  might 
be  called  animal  albumen,  or  protein.  The  latter 
name  is  applied  to  those  compounds  which  contain 
the  element  nitrogen  in  addition  to  the  elements 
carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  as  found  in  fats. 
They  are  also  called  nitrogenous,  because  they  con- 
tain nitrogen.  Beside  the  elements  carbon,  oxy- 
gen, hydrogen  and  nitrogen,  the  latter  a  gas  forming 
four-fifths  of  the  air,  protein  compounds  also  con- 
tain sulphur,  and  often  phosphorus  in  small  quan- 
tities. Bone  in  mature  animals  is  made  up  of  about 
two-thirds  mineral  matter  and  one-third  animal 
matter.  The  mineral  part  is  calcium  phosphate, 
compounds  of  iron  and  other  minerals.  Most  foods 
contain  enough  mineral  matter  for  bone  develop- 
ment. The  animal  part  of  the  bone  is  largely  al- 
buminous, like  lean  meat.  It  may  be  extracted  by 
means  of  hot  water  and  is  used  for  soups. 


PRODUCTS  FROM  FEEDING  ANIMALS.  Q 

Milk.- — The  cow  converts  food  into  milk,  composed 
of  five  parts — an  average  quality  being  about  3.7 
per  cent  fat,  3.6  per  cent  protein,  5  per  cent  sugar, 
0.7  per  cent  mineral  matter  and  87  per  cent  water. 
The  fat  of  milk,  from  which  butter  is  made,  is 
Uke  fat  from  meat,  in  that  it  consists  of  fatty 
compounds  made  up  of  carbon,  oxygen  and  hy- 
drogen. The  protein  of  milk,  corresponding  to 
lean  meat,  consists  of  both  casein  and  albumen. 
Casein  curdles  to  form  cheese  and  the  albumen 
rises  as  a  scum  when  milk  is  scalded.  The  sugar  of 
milk  is  a  compound  which,  like  fat,  consists  of  the 
elements  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  though 
sugar  differs  from  fat,  in  that  the  elements  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen  occur  in  the  proper  proportion  to 
form  water.  In  fats  they  do  not.  The  mineral 
matter  of  milk  is  similar  to  the  mineral  matter  in 
bone.  These  minerals  are  dissolved  in  the  water 
which  constitutes  a  large  part  of  the  milk,  approx- 
imately 87  per  cent  by  weight.  Since  milk  is  the 
only  article  of  diet  for  young  animals,  we  should 
naturally  expect  it  to  contain  the  nutrients  in  pro- 
portion for  producing  body  tissue  in  such  animals. 

The  egg  is  similar  to  meat  in  composition.  The 
white  and  part  of  the  yolk  are  protein,  or  albumen, 
constituting  13  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  egg. 
The  yolk  also  contains  fat,  mineral  matter  and  wa- 
ter— the  fat  constituting  9  per  cent;  the  mineral 
matter,  12  per  cent,  including  the  shell ;  and  water, 
66  per  cent.  Eggs  contain  all  the  elements  of  body 
growth,  since  the  chick  in  embryo  derives  all  its 
nourishment  from  within. 

Wool  is  a  tough,  fibrous  substance  valuable  for 
clothing.  While  it  is  not  an  article  of  food,  its  com- 
position is  similar  to  the  substances  already  de- 
scribed. It  contains  the  elements  carbon,  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen  and  sulphur,  the  latter  giving 


IO  PROFITABLE   STOCK    FEEDING. 

wool  a  disagreeable  odor  when  burned.    Consider- 
able fatty  matter  is  secreted  about  the  wool  fibers. 

Work  is  not  a  substance  produced  from  food,  but 
is  a  manifestation  of  energy,  of  which  food  is  the 
source.  When  coal,  which  is  nearly  pure  carbon, 
is  put  in  the  engine  and  burned,  the  union  of  car- 
bon and  oxygen  produces  heat,  which  by  means  of 
water  is  transformed  into  energy.  When  a  work- 
ing animal  like  the  horse  is  fed,  a  large  part  of  the 
food  goes  to  produce  energy.  A  part  of  this  energy, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  steam  engine,  comes  from  the 
union  of  oxygen  and  carbon,  but  some  of  it  also 
results  from  the  dissolution  of  compounds  built  up 
through  the  absorption  of  heat  from  the  sun  during 
plant  growth.  The  foods  which  produce  most  en- 
ergy are  those  which  contain  considerable  carbon, 
like  fats.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  a  man  at 
manual  labor  requires  more  fat  meat  than  the  office 
man.  So  also  the  inhabitants  of  a  cold  climate  re- 
quire more  fat  for  warmth  than  do  the  inhabitants 
of  warmer  climates.  Heat  and  energy  are  trans- 
formable, one  into  the  other. 

Animal  Requirements. — From  the  composition  of 
the  meat  carcass  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  about 
3.5  times  as  much  fat  as  lean  present,  the  fat  being 
carbonaceous  material  and  the  lean  nitrogenous.  In 
milk  there  is  also  considerably  more  carbonaceous 
matter  than  nitrogenous.  But  not  all  the  food  con- 
sumed by  an  animal  can  be  converted  into  tissue  or 
milk  or  be  made  to  produce  external  work.  A  cer- 
tain amount  is  absolutely  necessary  to  supply  heat 
for  the  body  and  maintain  the  animal  machinery  in 
the  performance  of  its  numerous  functions. 

The  food  of  maintenance  is  that  which  is  required 
to  keep  an  animal  at  constant  weight  while  at  rest. 
It  corresponds  to  the  fuel  which  is  required  to  heat 
the  iron  of  the  engine  and  generate  enough  steam 


PRODUCTS   FROM    FEEDING   ANIMALS.  II 

to  start  the  belt-wheel  without  being  able  to  per- 
form work.  When  an  animal  is  receiving  a  full  feed, 
approximately  one-half  of  the  ration  is  required  for 
simple  maintenance.  Since  this  part  goes  largely  to 
generate  heat  for  the  body  and  drive  such  muscles 
as  those  concerned  in  lung  expansion  and  heart  ac- 
tion, it  is  apparent  that  most  of  the  food  of  main- 
tenance may  consist  of  starch  or  sugar,  and  fats. 
Only  enough  protein,  or  nitrogenous  material,  is 
needed  to  replace  certain  worn-out  tissues,  of  which 
nitrogen  is  a  part.  From  the  fact  that  animal  prod- 
ucts as  meat  and  milk  contain  something  like  three 
times  as  much  carbonaceous  matter  (starches,  sug- 
ars and  fats)  as  protein  or  nitrogenous,  and  that, 
further,  the  food  of  maintenance — half  the  ration — 
may  consist  largely  of  the  carbonaceous  (1:12),  it 
seems  probable  that  food  supplied  an  average  ma- 
ture animal  should  contain  about  seven  times  as 
much  carbonaceous  matter  as  nitrogenous.  These 
requirements  will  be  described  with  greater  exact- 
ness after  attention  has  been  given  to  foods. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FOODS. 

Animals  Depend  Upon  'Plants  for  Nourishment. — 
Since  all  animals  either  directly  or  indirectly  derive 
their  nourishment  from  vegetation,  the  plant  suit- 
able for  feeding  purposes  may  be  looked  upon  as 
a  factory  where  crude  matter  taken  -from  the 
soil  and  air  is  made  into  various  compounds  at- 
tractive and  nourishing  to  the  animal.  For  con- 
venience these  plant  compounds  are  grouped  into 
classes,  the  compounds  belonging  to  each  class  be- 
ing more  or  less  similar  in  character.  The  chemist 
in  making  an  analysis  of  a  plant  takes  it  apart,  as 
it  were,  by  the  use  of  heat  and  chemicals,  and  de- 
termines the  weight  of  each  group,  stating  it  finally 
in  terms  of  percentage,  the  whole  added  amounting 
to  IOO  per  cent.  These  different  groups  into  which 
a  plant  or  food  may  be  separated  are  as  follows : 
water ;  mineral  matter ;  carbohydrates ;  fats,  or  oils  ; 
and  protein.  Each  of  these  groups  has  its  part  to 
play  in  the  animal  economy,  the  function  of  one 
being  quite  different  from  that  of  another.  A  few 
foods  contain  these  several  groups  of  compounds 
in  the  proportions  that  meet  the  needs  of  animals, 
but  in  most  instances  there  is  an  excess  of  one  and 
a  deficiency  of  another,  making  it  desirable  to  put 
together  two  or  more  opposite  in  character,  in  order 
to  supply  the  proper  balance  for  the  best  develop- 
ment of  the  animal.  There  is  a  tendency  on  the 
part  of  some  to  ignore  the  fact  that  a  food  should 
be  considered  with  reference  to  its  constituents. 
Many  go  on  the  assumption  that  a  pound  of  timothy 

12 


COMPOSITION   OF    FOODS.  13 

hay,  for  example,  is  equivalent  to  a  pound  of  clover 
hay,  when,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  their  composition  is 
such  as  to  make  them  widely  different,  so  that  one 
cannot  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  other. 

The  value  of  a  ration  also  depends  upon  certain 
other  qualities,  such  as  digestibility,  bulk  and  pala- 
tability,  which  will  be  considered  later.  Concerning 
these  different  groups  and  their  functions  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  said  of  each : 

I.  Water  is  the  transporting  agent  which  carries 
from  the  soil  mineral  matter  in  solution,  and  from 
one  part  of  the  plant  to  another  the  compounds 
formed  in  the  plant.  Water,  carrying  mineral  matter, 
sugar  and  the  like  in  solution,  is  called  sap,  and  sap 
is  to  the  plant  what  blood  is  to  the  animal.  But, 
however  valuable  water  may  be  as  an  agent  of 
growth  in  the  plant,  it  is  valueless  as  a  food  constit- 
uent for  the  nourishment  of  animals.  The  water  in 
the  brook  has  just  as  much  value,  the  only  difference 
being  that  plant  water,  consumed  with  other  con- 
stituents in  the  plant,  adds  succulence  to  certain 
foods,  making  them  more  palatable  and  otherwise 
more  suitable  for  such  animals  as  the  milch  cow. 
All  plants  used  for  feeding  purposes,  no  matter  how 
well  cured  in  the  field,  contain  some  water.  In 
grains  like  corn,  wheat  and  oats,  it  constitutes  some- 
thing like  10  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  food.  In 
green  grass,  fresh-cut  cornstalks  and  beets,  water 
is  present  in  large  quantities,  as  high  as  90  per  cent 
by  weight.  Owing  to  this  wide  variation  in  the 
water  content  of  plants,  and  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
water  has  no  special  nutritive  value,  it  is  customary 
to  speak  of  the  food  value  of  a  plant  in  terms  of  the 
dry  matter  it  contains.  The  chemist  determines  the 
dry  matter  by  weighing  the  substance  before  and 
after  the  application  of  slow  heat,  which  drives  out 
the  water  without  burning  the  plant. 


14  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

II.  Ash,  or  Mineral  Matter. — When  a  plant  or 
sample  of  food  is  completely  burned  there  always  re- 
mains an  ash,  which  is  the  mineral  matter  stored  up 
by  the  plant  during  growth.     Mineral  matter  forms 
only  a  very  small  part  of  a  food.    In  shelled  corn  it 
amounts  to  but  1.5  per  cent  by  weight.    In  alfalfa, 
clover  and  some  grasses  it  runs  as  high  as  6  or  8 
per  cent.     Plants  which  present  a  large  leaf  surface 
ordinarily  contain  the  most  mineral  matter.     This 
is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  more  water  is  drawn 
up  through  such  a  plant,  carrying  always  more  or 
less  mineral  matter  in  solution.    It  is  also  worthy  of 
note  that  most  of  the  mineral  matter  is  found  in  the 
leaves  of  a  plant,  because  the  water,  evaporating 
from  their  surface,  deposits  the  mineral  matter  orig- 
inally held  in  solution. 

In  grains  we  find  most  of  the  mineral  matter 
about  the  germ.  It  must  be  needed  by  the  young 
plant  as  it  comes  forth  from  the  seed  during  ger- 
mination. Without  lime  and  phosphoric  acid  and 
certain  other  minerals,  bone  formation  would  be  im- 
possible. The  digestive  juices  need  chlorine  and 
soda.  Iron  seems  to  be  intimately  associated  with 
the  formation  of  the  red  corpuscles  in  the  blood. 
Milk  contains  considerable  mineral  matter  in  solu- 
tion. In  young  animals  it  is  especially  important  to 
have  sufficient  mineral  matter  supplied  by  the  food, 
because  a  large  bone  development  is  taking  place. 
Fortunately  all  of  our  foods,  except  corn  and  certain 
prepared  foods,  contain  sufficient  mineral  matter  for 
the  animal,  though  salt  is  usually  lacking  and  this 
mineral  must  be  supplied. 

III.  Plant   Oils. — Plants   also   contain   more  or 
less  oil,  or  fat.    It  occurs  in  the  largest  quantity  in 
seeds.  Among  the  cereals,  corn  and  oats  are  richest 
in  oil,  each  containing  about  5  per  cent,  and  most  of 
this  oil  is  found  in  the  germ.     Flaxseed  and  cotton- 


COMPOSITION    OF   FOODS.  15 

seed  contain  from  33  to  37  per  cent  of  oil.  The  oil 
content  of  foods  is  determined  by  the  application 
of  some  chemical  solvent,  like  ether.  The  food  is 
first  weighed  and  then  soaked  in  ether,  which  .dis- 
solves the  oil.  The  solution  is  now  poured  off,  and 
the  ether  is  made  to  evaporate,  leaving  the  oil  be- 
hind. In  this  process  there  is  also  dissolved  out  a 
certain  amount  of  chlorophyll  and  gummy  matter, 
more  being  included  in  the  extraction  of  oils  from 
green  fodders.  Because  of  the  fact  that  something 
besides  oil  is  taken  out  of  a  plant  in  this  process, 
the  chemist  uses,  more  properly,  the  term  ether 
extract.  Fats,  or  oils,  from  plants  are  very  similar 
in  composition  to  animal  fats.  Their  function  is 
practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  starches  and 
sugars ;  namely,  the.  formation  of  animal  fat  and  the 
production  of  heat.  Plant  oils,  when  burned,  will 
give  out  2.25  times  as  much  heat  as  either  starch  or 
sugar ;  in  other  words,  one  pound  of  fat  is  equiva- 
lent to  2.25  pounds  of  carbohydrates  in  the  pro- 
duction of  heat  or  work. 

IV.  Carbohydrates. — That  class  of  food  com- 
pounds called  carbohydrates  includes  starch,  sugar 
and  crude  fiber.  All  of  these  compounds  contain  car- 
bon, hydrogen  and  oxygen,  the  latter  two  elements  in 
the  proportion  to  form  water.  As  a  class  they  form 
by  far  the  largest  part  of  most  foods.  They  are 
elaborated  in  the  plant  by  the  union  of  carbon  di- 
oxide gas,  taken  from  the  air  through  the  pores  of 
the  leaves,  and  water  drawn  from  the  soil.  In  this 
union,  heat  from  the  sun  is  absolutely  necessary. 
This  heat  is  stored  in  the  compound  in  latent  form, 
which  furnishes  warmth  and  energy  when  the  com- 
pound is  broken  up  in  the  process  of  digestion.  The 
carbohydrates,  then,  art  sources  ot  heat  and  energy. 
They  can  also  form  fat  in  the  body  because  animal 
fat,  as  already  mentioned,  consist*  'jf  the  same  ele- 


l6          PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

ments — carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  Starch  forms 
as  much  as  75  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter  of  corn, 
wheat,  potatoes  and  some  other  foods.  Sugar  is  not 
a  common  constituent  of  mature  plants.  It  occurs 
principally  in  such  plants  as  sorghum  and  sugar 
beets.  Its  function  is  the  same  as  that  of  starch, 
and  the  nutritive  value  of  one  is  about  equal  to  the 
other,  sugar  being  slightly  higher,  because  the 
change  of  starch  to  sugar  is  the  first  step  in  the 
process  of  digestion.  Crude  fiber,  another  carbo- 
hydrate similar  to  starch  and  sugar  in  composition, 
constitutes  the  tough,  woody  part  of  plants.  The 
stems  of  all  plants  contain  more  crude  fiber  than 
does  the  leaf  portion.  With  the  exception  of  water, 
it  is  the  least  valuable  constituent  of  a  plant,  be- 
cause it  is  very  largely  indigestible.  Young  plants 
contain  less  crude  fiber  than  plants  which  have  ma- 
tured and  formed  seeds.  During  the  ripening  proc- 
ess, a  certain  amount  of  starch  in  leaf  and  stem 
changes  to  the  more  indigestible  crude  fiber.  What 
crude  fiber  of  the  plant  can  be  digested  is  sup- 
posed to  have  practically  the  same  function  as 
starches  and  sugars  and  to  equal  them  in  value. 

V.  Protein,  or  Nitrogenous  Compounds. — The 
substances  just  described — carbohydrates  and  fats — 
contain  no  nitrogen  and  therefore  belong  to  that 
large  class  of  food  nutrients  sometimes  called 
non-nitrogenous.  There  is  another  class  of  nu- 
trients, very  rhuch  more  rare,  called  nitrogenous 
compounds,  because  they  contain  the  element  nitro- 
gen in  addition  to  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  It 
is  customary  to  speak  of  all  these  nitrogen  com- 
pounds as  protein.  The  protein  compounds,  unlike 
the  carbohydrates  and  fats,  are  not  formed  in  the 
plant  solely  by  the  union  of  carbon  dioxide  gas, 
taken  from  the  air,  and  water  from  the  soil.  They 
must  have  nitrogen  besides  these  other  elements, 


COMPOSITION    OF    FOODS. 


and  nitrogen  in  the  soil  is  not  abundant.  It  occurs 
combined  with  certain  minerals,  forming  what  are 
called  nitrates,  such  as  sodium  nitrate  and  potas- 
sium nitrate,  the  latter,  common  saltpeter.  When- 
ever a  soil  becomes  less  fertile,  it  is  often  because  of 
a  shortage  of  nitrates,  which  are  sometimes  dis- 
solved and  carried  away  by  the  leaching  action  of 
water  after  heavy  rains.  Fortunately,  nature  has 
provided  a  way  of  restoring  nitrogen  to  the  soil.  A 
certain  class  of  plants,  called  legumes,  have  the 
power  of  taking  free  nitrogen  from  the  air,  convert- 
ing it  into  compounds  suitable  for  the  growth  of 
plants.  The  common  legumes  are  the  clovers,  al- 
falfa, peas  and  beans.  These  plants,  having  little 
nodules  upon  the  roots  filled  with  living  bacteria, 
have  the  power,  in  some  way  not  well  understood, 
of  taking  free  nitrogen  from  the  air  pores  in  the  soil, 
transforming  it  into  plant  food. 

The  protein  compounds,  of  which  there  are  sev- 
eral in  number,  are  the  only  compounds  which  can 


Magnified  section  of  a  corn  kernel  showing  the  layer  of  gluten 
cells  (protein)  near  the  outer  edge  and  the  starch  within.  Some 
protein  also  occurs  mingled  with  the  starch — more  with  the  horny 
portion — the  greater  part  of  the  oil  being  found  within  the  germ. 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


form  lean  meat.  Some  are  soluble  and  some  insolu- 
ble in  water.  Those  soluble  in  water  are  called  al- 
bumen, corresponding  to  the  white  of  the  egg,  which 
is  animal  albumen.  On  the  other  hand,  the  sticky 
part  of  wheat  flour,  called  gluten,  is  a  protein  com- 
pound for  the  most  part  insoluble  in  water. 


FOOD-CASE    DESIGNED   BY   THE    WRITER   FOR   CLASS-ROOM 

USE. 

Beneath  each  food  is  shown  Its  constituent  parts — the  digestible 
nutrients  and  other  matter  which  together  form  the  one-pound 
sample.  These  foods  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  nutritive  ratios, 
the  one  on  the  extreme  left  being  richest  in  protein  ;  the  one  on 
the  extreme  right,  the  most  deficient.  In  the  middle  are  one-pound 
samples  ef  balanced  rations— that  for  the  pig  consisting  of  corn 
.6  Ib.  and  shorts  .4  Ib. ;  for  the  dairy  cow,  corn  .3  lb.,  bran  .1  lb., 
alfalfa  .4  lb.  and  corn  stover  .2  lb. ;  for  the  fattening  steer,  corn 
.6  lb.,  alfalfa  .3  lb.  and  stover  .1  lb.  For  contrast  to  show  the 
excess  of  starch,  an  unbalanced  ration,  consisting  of  corn  .6  lb., 
timothy  hay  .3  lb.  and  stover  .1  lb.  is  introduced. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  FOODS. 

The  digestive  apparatus  with  which  an  animal  is 
provided  consists  of  a  mechanism  for  reducing  to 
fine  particles  the  food  eaten ;  numerous  glands  for 
secreting  fluids  which  act  chemically  upon  the  finely 
divided  food,  changing  the  several  compounds  to 
soluble  forms;  and  a  circulatory  system  which  dis- 
solves this  soluble  material  and  carries  it  to  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  body  to  be  used  for  building  tissue 
and  liberating  heat.  It  has  been  found  that  a  part 
of  the  food  compounds  in  passing  through  the  di- 
gestive tract  escapes  digestion.  The  amount  di- 
gested depends  on  the  food  and,  to  some  extent, 
upon  the  class  of  animals  fed.  Animals  in  good 
health  are  fairly  uniform  in  their  extraction  and 
utilization  of  nutrients  from  a  given  class  of  foods, 
so  much  so  that  it  has  been  found  practicable  to 
make  digestion  trials  to  determine  the  per  cent  di- 
gested by  a  given  animal  or  set  of  animals,  and  to 
use  these  figures  as  a  basis  of  computation  for  all 
animals. 

The  chemist  determines  the  total  amount  of  each 
of  the  classes  of  compounds — carbohydrates,  ether 
extract,  and  protein — present  in  the  food,  but  the 
feeder,  in  making  up  rations,  must  know  the  amount 
in  each  class  capable  of  digestion. 

The  digestible  nutrients  of  foodstuffs  are  usually 
determined  by  feeding  an  animal,  or  set  of  animals, 
a  weighed  allowance  of  some  food,  the  composition 
of  which  has  been  previously  determined  by  the 


2O  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

chemist.  Provisions  are  then  made  for  collecting 
all  excrement  and  urine  which  come  from  this  food. 
By  making  an  analysis  of  this  waste  matter  the  un- 
digested carbohydrates,  fat  and  protein  are  found. 
The  undigested  portion  of  each,  deducted  from  the 
total  previously  found  in  the  food,  gives  the  digested 
part,  and  the  amount  of  each  constituent  digested, 
divided  by  the  total  in  the  food,  gives  the  per  cent 
digestible.  This  per  cent  is  called  the  coefficient  of 
digestibility.  Concentrated  foods  like  grains  are 
highly  digestible,  while  coarse  fodders  are  often 
comparatively  low  in  digestibility.  In  corn,  the 
average  of  several  trials  shows  the  protein  to  be 
76  per  cent  digestible,  the  nitrogen-free  extract 
(starches  and  sugars)  93  per  cent,  the  crude  fiber  58 
per  cent  and  the  ether  extract  (fat)  86  per  cent.  In 
timothy  hay,  cut  in  bloom,  the  protein  is  56  per 
cent  digestible,  nitrogen-free  extract  63  per  cent, 
crude  fiber  58  per  cent  and  fat  57  per  cent. 

Knowing  the  chemical  composition  of  foods  as 
determined  by  laboratory  methods  and  the  co- 
efficients of  digestibility  as  found  by  tests  with  ani- 
mals, it  is  an  easy  matter  to  determine  the  amount 
of  various  digestible  nutrients  in  foodstuffs  by  mul- 
tiplying the  former  by  the  latter.  Thus  corn  con- 
tains 10.4  per  cent  total  protein,  as  found  by  the 
chemist,  which  is  equivalent  to  10.4  pounds  of  total 
protein  in  100  pounds  of  corn.  The  coefficient  of 
digestibility  of  protein  in  corn  is  76.  There  are, 
therefore,  in  100  pounds  of  corn  76  per  cent  of  10.4 
pounds,  or  7.9  pounds  of  digestible  protein.  It  is 
with  this  digestible  protein,  and  not  total  protein, 
that  the  feeder  is  concerned  when  he  calculates  a 
ration.  A  great  deal  of  work  has  been  done  by  in- 
vestigators to  determine  the  digestibility  of  food- 
stuffs. For  ready  reference  Table  II,  showing  the 
amount  of  digestible  nutrients  in  a  large  number  of 


DIGESTIBLE    NUTRIENTS    IN    FOODS. 


21 


foods,  is  published  in  the  appendix  of  this  book. 
While  some  of  these  figures  will  no  doubt  be  re- 
vised as  further  determinations  are  made  in  future 
years,  they  are,  nevertheless,  sufficiently  accurate 
to  be  invaluable  to  the  stockman  in  calculating 
economical  rations.  Following  is  a  table  showing 
the  number  of  pounds  of  digestible  nutrients  in  a 
few  of  the  more  common  foods.  These  foods  are 
grouped  into  the  two  classes,  concentrates  and 
roughage : 


Concentrates 

Dry  matter 
in  100  Ibs. 

Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  Ibs.  of  food. 

£ 

1 

"«     »H 

%s 

.23 

as 

0> 

2 

•J3 

%  v. 

33 

d  a 
M  « 

.2 
5 

o 

t-t 

PM 

| 

ii 

5£ 

00 

s 

o 

> 

1.2 

SB 

89.1 
89.0 

88.1 

90.8 

59.5 

86.8 
84.7 
91.6 

10.9 
11.0 
11.9 

9.2 

40.5 
13.2 
15.3 

8.4 

1.4 
3.0 

5.8 

5.7 

3.4 
4.4 
6.2 

7.4 

8.8 
25.3 

28.2 

16.1 

21.3 
34.8 
34.2 
32.4 

7.9 
9.2 

12.2 

29.3 

1.7 
2.8 
6.8 
11.0 

66.7 
47.3 
39.2 

32.7 

32.4 
43.4 
35.8 
39.6 

4.3 
4.2 

2.7 

7.0 

0.7 
1.4 
1.7 
1.2 

1:  9.7 
1:  6.2 
1:  3.7 

1:  1.6 

1:19.3 
1:16.6 
1:  5.8 
1:  3.8 

Oats  

Wheat  bran  

Old  process  linseed 

Koughage. 
Corn  stover   
Timothy  hay  .... 
Eed  clover  hay.  .  . 
Alfalfa  hay   

The  indigestible  matter  is  found  by  subtracting 
the  sum  of  digestible  nutrients  and  ash  from  the 
total  dry  matter,  the  latter  being  the  foodstuff 
minus  the  water  it  contains. 

Nutritive  Ratio  of  Foods. — As  has  been  previous- 
ly stated,  that  class  of  nutrients  called  carbohy- 
drates, including  starches,  sugars  and  digestible 
crude  fiber,  and  the  class  called  fats  or  ether  extract 
could  all  he  grouped  together  under  the  name  non- 
nitrogenous  constituents,  since  they  contain  no  ni- 
trogen. They  are,  therefore,  convertible  into  fat  or 
beat,  but  not  into  lean  tissue,  because  the  latter  con- 


82  PROFITABLE   STOCK   FEEDING. 

tains  nitrogen.  The  nitrogenous  compounds,  also 
called  protein,  including  such  familiar  substances  as 
the  gluten  of  wheat  and  corn,  the  casein  oi  milk, 
etc.,  form  the  lean  tissue  and  assist  in  the  formation 
of  bone.  The  ratio  of  these  two  general  classes  of 
constituents  in  a  food — the  one  forming  the  fat  and 
the  other  the  lean  tissue — should  be  kept  in  mind, 
since  it  determines  the  class  to  which  a  food  be- 
longs. If  a  single  food  contains  more  protein  than 
an  average  animal  needs,  it  is  called  a  protein  "»r 
nitrogenous  food.  If  it  contains  less  it  »s  called  a. 
carbonaceous,  or,  more  correctly,  a  non-nitrogenous 
food.  This  ratio  of  non-nitrogenous  to  nitrogen- iv 
constituents  is  shown  in  the  last  column  of  the 
table,  and  is  called  nutritive  ratio.  It  is  found 
by  multiplying  the  fat  by  2.25,  adding  the  prod- 
uct to  the  carbohydrates  of  the  food,  and  divid- 
ing this  sum  by  the  protein  content.  The  fat 
is  first  multiplied  by  2.25,  because  i  pound  of 
fat  is  equal  to  2^4  pounds  of  carbohydrates 
in  the  production  of  heat,  as  is  shown  by  heat- 
ing water.  One  pound  of  fat  burned  under  water  in 
an  apparatus  for  conserving  all  the  heat  will  raise  to 
the  same  temperature  2.25  times  as  much  water  as 
will  one  pound  of  starch  or  sugar.  Inasmuch  as  a 
large  part  of  the  food  goes  to  make  heat  and  energy, 
it  is  customary  to  assign  these  relative  values  to 
fats  and  carbohydrates.  By  way  of  illustration,  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  linseed  meal  is  computed  as  fol- 
lows :  There  are  in  100  pounds  of  old  process  lin- 
seed meal  (oil-meal)  7  pounds  of  digestible  fat. 
This  multiplied  by  2.25  gives  15.7,  the  carbohydrate 
equivalent  of  the  7  pounds  of  fat.  This  added  to 
the  32.7  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates  in  100 
pounds  of  linseed  meal  gives  48.4  pounds  of  non- 
nitrogenous  material,  as  compared  with  29.3  pounds 
of  protein,  or  nitrogenous  matter.  Dividing  the  for- 


DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS  IN    FOODS.  23 

mer  by  the  latter,  we  have  the  nutritive  ratio  i  -.1.65, 
which  means  I  pound  of  nitrogenous  matter  to  1.65 
non-nitrogenous  matter. 

Animals  must  have  food  nutrients  in  certain  pro- 
portions to  meet  all  the  needs  of  the  organism  and 
to  give  the  largest  returns  from  the  smallest  con- 
sumption of  food.  If  an  excess  of  starch  is  supplied, 
this  excess  is  wasted,  because  there  is  not  sufficient 
protein  present  to  balance  it.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  an  excess  of  protein  is  supplied  in  the  ration,  it  is 
not  altogether  wasted,  because  a  part  of  it  may  go 
to  form  fat,  since  protein  contains  the  elements  car- 
bon, hydrogen  and  oxygen  (the  three  elements 
forming  fat)  and,  in  addition,  the  element  nitrogen. 
This  latter  element — the  most  valuable  part  of  pro- 
tein— is  eliminated  through  the  kidneys,  if  this  'nu- 
trient is  made  to  take  the  place  of  carbohydrates 
in  fat  formation.  An  excess  of  protein,  therefore, 
while  not  a  total  loss,  is  an  unnecessary  extrava- 
gance. 

A  balanced  ration  is  one  which  contains  the  nu- 
trients in  proportions  which  meet  the  needs  of  the 
animal  body  for  its  best  development;  in  other 
words,  it  is  a  ration  in  which  the  food  is  in  harmony 
v/ith  the  animal.  It  may  be  a  single  food,  but  it  .is 
oftener  a  combination  of  two  or  more.  The  bal- 
anced ration  is  no  longer  looked  upon  as  a  theory 
which  does  not  hold  good  in  practice,  because  it  has 
been  put  to  the  test  and  has  not  been  found  want- 
ing. Our  state  experiment  stations  have  conducted 
numerous  feeding  experiments  with  animals,  in 
which  balanced  and  unbalanced  rations  have  been 
compared.  At  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station,  for 
example,  corn,  prairie  hay  and  corn  stover,  a  com- 
bination having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:11,  was  fed 
to  steers  in  contrast  with  a  balanced  ration  having 
a  nutritive  ration  of  1:6.5.  The  average  of  three 
trials  showed  that  28  per  cent  less  feed  was  re- 


24  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

quired  for  a  given  increase  in  weight  with  the  bal- 
anced ration.  In  an  experiment  at  the  Nebraska 
Experiment  Station  with  yearling  steers,  it  was 
found  that,  to  make  the  same  gain,  29  per  cent  less 
food  was  required  with  corn  and  alfalfa  than  with 
corn  and  prairie  hay,  and  the  alfalfa  was  no  more 
expensive.  In  another  lot  where  oil-meal,  a  rich  pro- 
tein food,  was  added  to  corn  and  prairie  hay,  25  per 
cent  less  total  food  was  required  for  a  given  gain. 
The  experiment  stations  of  Illinois  and  Missouri 
have  recently  shown  the  advantage  of  corn  and 
clover  over  corn  and  timothy  in  as  striking  contrast. 

Nor  have  the  tests  been  confined  to  fattening  cat- 
tle alone.  Experiments  with  sheep,  swine  and  dairy 
cows  show  that  much  larger  returns  are  made  when 
the  rations  are  compounded  in  a  way  that  will  fur- 
nish the  nutrients  in  a  proportion  somewhere  near 
the  requirements  as  determined  by  scientific  meth- 
ods. 

Feeding  Standards. — During  past  years  certain 
German  investigators  have  formulated  what  are 
called  feeding  standards.  These  standards  prescribe 
the  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  needed  per  day 
for  the  development  of  the  various  classes  of  farm 
animals  at  different  stages  of  growth,  calculated  per 
1,000  pounds  live  weight.  The  following  table  is  a 
part  of  one  proposed  by  Wolff  and  Lehmann,  and 
has  been  in  general  use  for  many  years: 


DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS   IN    FOODS. 


Growing  cattle  .....   ... 

gl 

.rH      O 
«J     O 

*>s 

Digestible  nutrients. 

1  •!  ,1  4 
*i£Pi* 

Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

3  to    6 
6  to  12 
12  to  18 

24 
25 
24 

30 

18 
'26 
44 
35 

36 

22 
26 

30 
29 
32 

3.5 
2.5 

2 

2.5 

.7 
2.5 
7.6 
5 

4.5 
2.5 

4.4 

3 

2.5 
3.3 

12.8 
13.2 
12.5 

15 

8 
13.3 
28 
23.1 

25 
15.5 
15.5 

15 
13 
13 

1.5 

.7 
.5 

.5 

.1 

.8 
.1 
.8 

.7 
.4 
.9 

.5 
.5 

.8 

1:  4.7 
1:   6 
1:  6.8 

1:  6.5 

1:11.8 
1:   6 
1:   4 
1:  5 

1:   5.9 
1:   6.6 
1:  4 

1:  5.4 
1:  5.7 
1:  4.5 

Growing    Cattle    •          

Growing  cattle            

Fattening  cattle  (first  pe- 
riod)      

Cattle    (maintenance    ra- 
tion)     

Horse    (heavy  work)  .... 

Growing  swine 

2  to    3 
3  to    5 

Growing  swine 

Fattening  swine  (first  pe- 

Brood  sows  

Growing  sheep   .  .          .    . 

4  to    6 

Fattening  sheep  (first  pe- 
riod)                         .    .  . 

Milch  cows,  22  Ibs.  milk 
per  day 

Milch  cows,  27.5  Ibs.  milk 
per  day   

As  indicated  by  the  table  a  young  animal  needs 
more  protein,  and  consequently  a  more  narrow  nu- 
tritive ratio,  than  an  older  one.  This  is  because  the 
young  animal  is  building  bone  and  flesh,  rather  than 
fat.  As  the  animal  approaches  maturity,  there  is 
less  call  for  nutrients  to  develop  framework,  and 
more  for  fat  tissue  and  maintenance  needs. 

To  make  clearer  the  relation  of  foods  to  animal 
requirements  with  reference  to  the  digestible  nutri- 
ents, a  chart  is  given  below  showing  the  proportion 
of  protein,  or  nitrogenous  constituents,  to  starches, 
fats,  etc.,  called  non-nitrogenous,  in  each  of  several 
common  foodstuffs.  These  foods  are  arranged  in 
their  order  according  to  the  relative  richness  of  each 
food  in,  protein,  the  one  richest  in  this  nutrient 
being  placed  at  the  top  and  the  one  lowest  in  pro- 
tein at  the  bottom. 


26 


PROFITABLE  STOCK   FEEDING. 


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DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS. 


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28  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

The  nutritive  ratio  1 17,  which  is  approximately 
correct  for  the  needs  of  the  average  fattening  ani- 
mal, makes  a  convenient  dividing  line  between  the 
two  classes  of  foods.  The  upper  page  shows  that 
there  are  several  foods  containing  a  proportion  of 
protein  in  excess  of  the  requirements  of  fattening 
animals.  It  is  apparent  to  the  reader  that  if  a 
starchy  food,  like  corn,  is  fed,  something  from  the 
upper  part  of  the  column  containing  protein  in 
excess  should  go  with  it.  This  might  be  a  rough- 
ness, like  alfalfa  or  clover.  If  two  starchy  foods, 
like  corn  and  timothy  or  prairie  hay,  are  largely 
used,  one  of  the  concentrated  protein  foods  near 
the  head  of  the  column  should  be  fed.  There  are 
certain  foods  near  the  middle,  oats  and  wheat,  for 
example,  which  in  themselves  approximate  closely 
to  balanced  rations  for  fattening  stock ;  but  they 
are  often  too  high  priced  to  be  used  economically, 
at  least  as  the  major  part  of  a  ration.  For  this 
reason  it  is  better  economy  to  select  some  of  the 
cheaper  foods  below,  and  balance  them  with  one 
or  more  of  the  more  concentrated  protein  foods 
near  the  top  of  the  column,  the  choice  depending 
upon  the  price. 

Methods  of  Calculating-  Rations. — While  the 
above  table  gives  a  fair  idea  of  what  foods  would 
together  constitute  a  balanced  ration,  greater  accu- 
racy may  be  obtained  by  the  usual  mathematical 
calculation  of  such  rations.  To  calculate  a  ration 
for  a  fattening  steer  weighing  say  900  pounds,  for 
the  third  period  of  feeding,  the  procedure  would  be 
as  follows:  The  requirements  for  a  i,ooo-pound 
steer,  as  given  in  the  German  standards  in  the  ap- 
pendix, are,  for  the  third  period,  dry  matter,  26 
pounds;  protein,  2.7  pounds;  carbohydrates,  15 
pounds ;  and  fat,  or  ether  extract,  .7  pound.  A  900 
pound  steer  would  require  about  .9  of  each  of  these 


DIGESTIBLE    NUTRIENTS   IN    FOODS.  2Q 

amounts,  which  would  be  :  dry  matter,  23.4  pounds ; 
protein,  2.43  pounds;  carbohydrates,  13.5  pounds; 
and  fat,  .63  pounds.  Inasmuch  as  the  average 
ration  contains  about  15  per  cent  water,  there 
would  be  required  for  23.4  pounds  of  dry  mat- 
ter nearly  30  pounds  of  feed.  For  a  fattening  steer, 
of  this  30  pounds,  about  20  pounds  should  consist  of 
concentrates  and  10  pounds  of  roughness.  Assum- 
ing that  timothy  hay  and  corn  stover  are  most  avail- 
able for  roughness,  we  shall  use  about  5  pounds  of 
each.  According  to  Table  II,  in  the  Appendix,  there 
are  2.8  pounds  of  digestible  protein  in  100  pounds  of 
timothy  hay.  In  I  pound  of  timothy  there  will  be 
(2.8-=-ioo)  .028  pound  of  protein  and  in  5  pounds  of 
timothy  there  will  be  (5X^028  pound)  .14  pound 
of  digestible  protein.  Computing  in  the  same  way 
the  other  nutrients  in  timothy  hay,  we  have  (43.4— 
100X5)  2-I7  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  and  (l.4~r- 
100X5)  -°7  pound  of  fat.  In  5  pounds  of  corn 
stover  there  are  (i. 7-^-100X5)  .085  pound  of  pro- 
tein, (32.4-^100X5)  1.62  pounds  carbohydrates, 
and  (.7-^-100X5)  .035  pound  fat.  If  the  grain  ra- 
tion consists  entirely  of  corn,  say  20  pounds,  we 
shall  have  from  that  source  (7.9-^100X20)  1.58 
pounds  protein,  (66.7-^100X20)  13.34  pounds  car- 
bohydrates, and  (4.3-^100X20)  .86  pound  fat.  Com- 
bining these  foods  in  a  table  and  adding  the  nutri- 
ents together,  we  have: 

Carbo-  Nutritive 

Ration.  Protein,  hydrates.     Fat.     ratio. 

Corn,  20  Ibs 1.58         13.34         .86         

Timothy,  5  Ibs 14  2.17         .07         

"orn-stover,  5  Ibs 08  1.62         .03         

Total  1.80        17.13        .96        1:10.7 

Wolff-Lehmann     standard     for 

900  Ib.  steer 2.4          13.5          .6          1 :  6.2 

Comparing  the  nutrients  in  the  above  ration  with 
the  standard,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  deficiency 


30  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

of  .6  pound  of  protein  and  an  excess  of  3.6  pounds 
of  carbohydrates  and  .3  pound  of  fat.  It  will,  there- 
fore, be  necessary  to  introduce  into  the  grain  ration 
some  concentrated  protein  food,  like  oil-meal  or 
cottonseed-meal,  reducing  at  the  same  time  the  car- 
bohydrates by  feeding  less  corn.  Following  is  the 
second  trial  ration : 

Carbo-  Nutritive 

Eation.  Protein,  hydrates.     Fat.        ratio. 

Corn,   16  Ibs    1.34         10.67         .73          

Oil-meal,  3  Ibs 88  .98         .21          

Timothy,  5  Ibs 14  2.17'         .07          

Corn-stover,  5  Ibs 08  1.62         .03         

Total   2.4  15.4         1.0  1:  7.3 

Wolff -Lehmann  standard   .       . .  2.4  13.5  .6 


In  the  second  ration  we  have  the  correct  amount 
of  protein,  but  an  excess  of  1.9  pounds  of  carbohy- 
drates and  .4  pound  fat,  the  entire  ration  giving 
a  nutritive  ration  of  1 17.3,  instead  of  1 :6.2  as  speci- 
fied in  the  standard.  Were  it  desirable  to  approach 
the  German  standard  more  closely,  it  would  be  pos- 
sible to  add  %  pound  of  oil-meal  and  reduce  the 
corn  24  pounds.  Inasmuch  as  I  pound  of  oil-meal 
contains  about  three  times  as  much  protein  as  I 
pound  of  corn,  we  would  still  have  the  correct 
amount  of  protein  in  the  ration  and  somewhat  less 
of  the  carbohydrates  and  fats.  But  for  American 
conditions  we  find  a  slight  excess  of  carbohydrates 
and  fats  desirable,  and  we  have  also  recently  found 
that  less  protein  than  the  German  standard  calls  for 
is  needed.  Corn  is  our  least  expensive  concentrate 
and  we  are  justified  in  making  a  very  large  use  of 
it,  even  though  a  small  amount  of  starch  should  be 
wasted.  In  making  up  rations  for  profitable  feed- 
ing, prices  on  foodstuffs  must  be  given  just  as  much 
consideration  as  food  composition.  For  average 
Western  conditions,  a  ration  as  wide  as  1 17.3  is  more 


DIGESTIBLE    NUTRIENTS   IN    FOODS.  3! 

profitable  than  i  :6.2  for  fairly  mature  animals  of 
any  kind,  and  in  America  the  evidence  points  to  the 
fact  that  a  good  ration  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of 
1 17.3  will  produce  just  as  much  gain  per  weight  of 
food  consumed,  regardless  of  expense,  as  a  more 
narrow  one  for  fattening  any  class  of  stock  approach- 
ing maturity,  or  for  dairy  cows. 

For  American  conditions,  the  protein  requirement 
as  given  in  the  German  standards  may  be  reduced 
10  per  cent,  furnishing,  for  example,  2.25  pounds 
where  2.5  pounds  are  called  for0  Why  this  is  recom- 
mended will  be  better  understood  later. 

Quantity  of  Food  Supplied. — No  matter  how 
carefully  a  ration  may  be  compounded  with  refer- 
ence to  the  balance  of  nutrients,  it  will  not  prove  an 
economical  one  unless  supplied  in  a  quantity  that 
will  meet  the  full  requirements  of  the  animal.  In 
order  to  show  that  underfeeding  any  animal  is  an 
extravagant  practice,  it  will  be  necessary  to  refer  to 
the  maintenance  ration,  which  has  been  described 
as  the  food  required  to  furnish  body  heat  and 
to  support  all  natural  functions,  such  as  heart  ac- 
tion, lung  expansion,  etc.,  without  permitting  a  loss 
of  weight  and  without  producing  gain  in  weight. 
Approximately  half  of  a  full  ration  is  required  for 
maintenance,  only  the  second  half  being  used  for 
growth  or  other  production.  If  this  second  half  is 
cut  in  two,  the  animal  receiving  but  three-fourths  of 
a  full  ration,  the  gain  in  weight  is  but  half  of  what 
it  would  be  from  a  full  ration.  It  is  apparent,  there- 
fore, that  any  reduction  from  a  full  feed  results  in  a 
much  larger  consumption  of  food  for  a  given  in- 
crease in  weight,  or  a  given  flow  of  milk.  But  while 
a  full  feed  is  always  desirable,  the  reader  should  not 
interpret  this  to  mean  that  a  full  feed  of  grain  is 
always  the  most  economical.  With  dry  cows,  stock 
cattle,  and  other  animals  which  are  not  being  forced 


32  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

for  heavy  production,  the  proportion  of  roughness 
should  be  made  large.  It  is  better  economy  to  re- 
quire such  animals  to  derive  the  greater  part  or  all 
of  their  nourishment  from  crude  material,  than  to 
give  them  less  roughness  than  they  are  capable  of 
using,  supplying  grain  for  further  needs.  No  farm 
animal  will  get  more  nourishment  than  is  needed 
for  any  purpose  on  a  full  feed  of  some  forms  of 
roughness.  The  gains  or  performance  desired  should 
be  controlled  by  the  character  of  the  ration,  rather 
than  by  underfeeding,  at  least  on  average  farms, 
where  cheap  roughness,  in  the  shape  of  cornstalks, 
hay,  etc.,  is  always  on  hand.  The  question  of  pro- 
portion of  grain  to  roughness  will  be  discussed 
in  connection  with  each  of  the  various  classes  of 
animals,  inasmuch  as  the  requirements  differ  not 
only  with  the  several  classes  but  also  at  the  differ- 
ent stages  in  the  development  of  any  individual 
animal. 

Palatability. — Rations  must  not  only  furnish  the 
necessary  amount  of  digestible  nutrients,  but  must 
also  be  palatable  to  the  animal.  This  is  especially 
true  where  rapid  gains  or  a  large  milk  flow  is  de- 
sired. Hay  should  not  be  overripe,  discolored,  or 
mouldy.  Grain  should  not  be  musty,  or  ground  and 
then  placed  in  heaps  where  it  becomes  tainted  by 
decomposing  oil.  Feed  boxes  should  be  free  from 
foulness.  A  ration  becomes  less  palatable  when  lim- 
ited to  few  foods.  A  variety  of  foods  is  more  appe- 
tizing, and  is  therefore  always  desirable  for  all 
classes  of  animals,  which  applies  to  roughness  as 
well  as  to  concentrates. 

That  the  flow  of  digestive  juices  is  augmented 
and  digestion  made  more  active  through  the  influ- 
ence of  palatability  in  food,  is  well  shown  by  the 
work  of  Pawlow,  the  Russian  physiologist,  as  re- 
viewed by  Forbes  in  Bulletin  65  of  the  Missouri 


DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS   IN    FOODS.  33 

Experiment  Station: 

"The  idea  that  the  secretion  of  the  digestive  juices 
is  controlled  by  the  nervous  system  and  is  suscepti- 
ble of  influence  by  sensory  impressions  was  first  ad- 
vanced by  F.  Bidder  and  C.  Schmidt  in  1852,  but 
has  since  been  demonstrated  many  times  over  in  a 
great  number  of  physiological  laboratories.  Fore- 
most among  students  of  the  physiology  of  the  di- 
gestive organs  is  J.  P.  Pawlow,  of  St.  Petersburg, 
Russia.  He  and  his  associates  have  advanced  and 
experimentally  proven  many  revolutionary  ideas 
concerning  the  work  of  the  digestive  glands.  Their 
experiments  have  been  very  largely  with  dogs, 
which  are  anaesthetized  and  operated  upon  in  order 
to  fit  them  for  these  studies. 

"The  various  operations  to  which  dogs  are  sub- 
jected are  as  follows:  (i)  In  order  to  obtain  the 
salivary  secretions  with  purity,  the  ducts  leading 
from  the  secreting  glands  are  brought  to  the  sur- 
face and  healed  into  openings  in  the  skin  in  such 
manner  that  they  discharge  their  secretions  exter- 
nally. (2)  In  order  to  get  pure  gastric  juice,  the 
oesophagus  is  cut  across,  the  lower  end  closed  and 
the  upper  end,  which  connects  with  the  mouth,  is 
brought  to  the  surface  and  healed  into  an  opening 
in  the  skin,  so  that  food  upon  being  swallowed 
passes  directly  out  of  the  body  through  this  hole 
in  the  neck  and  falls  into  the  dish  from  which  it  is 
eaten.  Dogs  thus  operated  upon  eat  the  same  food 
over  and  over  again,  by  the  hour,  with  every  evi- 
dence of  satisfaction  and  often  live  the  usual  length 
of  life  in  perfect  health.  The  pure,  unmixed  gastric 
juice  is  withdrawn  when  wanted  for  study  by  way 
of  a  direct  opening  made  through  the  abdominal 
wall  into  the  stomach.  This  opening  is  closed  with 
a  metallic  cannula.  Through  it  the  animal  is  given 
its  nourishment.  (3)  Further,  a  small  portion  of 


34  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

the  stomach  may  be  made  into  a  pouch,  also  open- 
ing externally,  so  that  the  secreting  surfaces,  for- 
merly on  the  inside  of  the  stomach  and  still  acting 
in  harmony  with  it,  are  accessible  from  the  outside, 
though  all  communication  between  this  pouch  and 
the  remainder  of  the  stomach  is  cut  off.  (4)  An 
opening  into  the  intestine  similar  to  that  made  into 
the  stomach  and  similarly  closed  by  a  metallic  can- 
nula,  makes  possible  a  study  of  digestion  in  this 
organ.  (5)  The  work  of  the  pancreas  may  be 
studied  by  bringing  the  pancreatic  duct,  with  the 
portion  of  the  intestine  surrounding  its  opening,  to 
the  surface  and  stitching  it  into  an  opening  in  the 
skin,  as  in  the  case  of  the  ducts  from  the  salivary 
glands. 

"Studies  upon  dogs  thus  prepared  give  evidence  of 
the  fact  that  any  sensory  impression,  as  through  see- 
ing, smelling  or  tasting,  which  suggests  to  the  dog 
the  idea  of  food,  causes  a  secretion  of  the  digestive 
juices.  This  reflex  secretion  caused  by  the  sugges- 
tion of  food  is  called  the  'psychic  secretion/  and  an 
allowance  of  food  chewed  as  usual,  but  swallowed  di- 
rectly out  of  the  body  by  way  of  the  oesophageal  fis- 
tula, is  called  a  'false  meal.' 

"The  fact  of  the  psychic  secretion  of  gastric  juice 
was  first  observed  by  Richet  in  1878,  but  by  many 
others  since  that  time.  The  operation  of  gastrot- 
omy  has  been  successfully  accomplished  on  a  dog 
at  the  University  of  Missouri  and  this  psychic  se- 
cretion is  easily  demonstrable  with  this  subject. 
J.  B.  Pawlow  has  found  that  the  more  eagerly  a  dog 
indulges  in  the  'false  meal'  above  described,  the 
greater  will  be  the  amount  and  digestive  power  of 
the  gastric  secretion.  The  sensation  of  keen  hunger 
seems  to  enrich  the  psychic  secretion  of  gastric 
juice,  both  in  acid  and  in  pepsin.  This  fact  is  of 
great  importance  to  the  stock  feeder,  indicating,  as 


DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN   FOODS.  35 

it  does,  that  a  keen  appetite  is  requisite  to  most  effi- 
cient digestion. 

"Dr.  Chigin,  whose  work  is  freely  quoted  by 
Pawlow,  has  found  that  during  the  eating  of  the 
'false  meal'  the  amount  of  gastric  juice  secreted  is 
proportionate  to  the  amount  and  palatability  of  the 
food  eaten.  He  finds  that  dogs  usually  prefer  raw 
meat  to  cooked  meat  and  accordingly  secrete  more 
gastric  juice  during  a  'false  meal'  of  the  former 
than  of  the  latter.  Some  dogs,  however,  prefer  that 
the  meat  be  cooked  and  these  are  found  to  secrete 
more  juice  during  the  'false  meal'  of  the  cooked 
meat.  Similarly,  certain  dogs  prefer  bread  to  meat 
and  such  individuals  secrete  more  juice  during  a 
'false  meal'  of  bread,  though  with  most  dogs  the 
preference  and  the  abundant  secretion  of  gastric 
juice  are  with  the  meat. 

"To  understand  just  how  palatability  affects  diges- 
tibility cannot  fail  to  impress  upon  us  the  impor- 
tance of  considering  this  characteristic  of  the  foods 
we  offer  to  our  live  stock,  and  also  the  futility  of  trying 
to  get  the  greatest  profit  out  of  feeding  stock  upon 
foods  which  they  do  not  regard  with  favor/' 

Regularity  in  Feeding. — In  feeding  farm  animals, 
other  things  are  to  be  considered  besides  food  supply. 
The  temperament  of  domestic  animals  is  such  as  to 
make  irregularities  often  disastrous,  so  far  as  gains 
are  concerned.  Each  animal  should  be  given  its 
allowance  as  nearly  at  the  same  hour  each  day  as  is 
possible.  The  digestive  system  adapts  itself  to  re- 
ceive food  at  a  certain  time.  If  it  does  not  appear 
at  the  usual  time,  the  animal  begins  to  worry  and 
loses  thereby.  Grain  feeding  twice  each  day,  morn- 
ing and  night,  is  sufficient  for  old  animals,  with  the 
exception  of  horses  and  swine,  which  should  or- 
dinarily be  fed  three  times  a  day. 

Irregularity  in  amount  fed  produces  irregularity  in 


*D  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

the  secretion  of  digestive  fluids,  and  may  even  pro- 
duce sickness,  as  when  an  unusually  large  feed  is 
put  before  the  animal. 

Water. — All  animals  should  be  supplied  with  an 
abundance  of  pure  water.  They  should  never  be  al- 
lowed to  become  over  thirsty.  Such  treatment  causes 
worry,  and  when  the  thirst  is  satisfied,  the  abnormal 
amount  of  water  in  the  system  produces  unnecessary 
waste  of  tissues  through  the  kidneys. 

Quietness  and  Contentment. — In  the  care  of  farm 
animals,  the  attendant  should  remember  that  quiet- 
ness and  contentment  are  always  conducive  to  best 
results  in  both  meat  and  milk  production.  To  this 
end  every  effort  should  be  made  to  avoid  disturbance 
of  any  kind,  whether  it  be  loud  talking,  barking 
dogs,  or  free  use  of  clubs.  The  latter  practice  is  a 
most  condemnable  one. 

Exercise. — Farm  animals  should  not  be  deprived 
of  exercise.  Health  and  vigor  are  promoted  where 
an  animal  is  permitted  to  move  about,  in  this  way 
stimulating  the  circulatory  blood  flow  and  throwing 
off  waste  matter  that  might  otherwise  accumulate  in 
the  system.  Exercise  is  especially  needed  by  young 
animals. 

What  has  been  said  concerning  foods  applies  in  a 
general  way  to  all  farm  animals.  For  the  details,  each 
class  of  animals  must  be  treated  separately.  Dairy 
cattle  will  be  discussed  first,  because  the  cow  log- 
ically precedes  the  beef  steer.  The  discussion  of 
beef  cattle  will  be  followed  by  chapters  on  the  other 
classes  of  meat  animals,  which  in  turn  will  be  fol- 
lowed by  chapters  on  horse  feeding. 


PART  II 

MILK  PRODUCTION 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  DAIRY  COW. 

The  United  States  is  becoming  more  and  more  a 
dairy  country,  which  is  but  a  natural  adjustment  to 
changed  conditions.  As  our  population  grows,  more 
food  is  required  to  sustain  it,  of  which  food  a  consid- 
erable portion  will  always  consist  of  animal  products 
of  some  sort.  One  animal  product  can  be  substituted 
for  another  in  the  human  dietary  much  more  success- 
fully than  can  plant  products  be  substituted  for  them. 
This  refers  more  particularly  to  the  use  of  milk,  butter, 
cheese  and  eggs  rather  than  cereals  and  vegetables 
as  meat  substitutes.  One  pound  of  nutriment  in 
milk  can  be  produced  from  very  much  less  food  than 
is  required  for  one  pound  of  nutriment  in  meat, 
though  this  is  partially  offset  by  the  fact  that  milk 
requires  the  expenditure  of  more  labor  for  its  pro- 
duction. 

To  illustrate  by  means  of  figures  what  has  been 
said  concerning  the  production  of  milk  and  meat  from 
a  given  weight  of  food,  the  following  comparison  is 
made  in  terms  of  heat  units,  which  is  considered  a  fair 
estimate  of  real  food  values.  The  heat  unit  univer- 
sally used  is  called  the  calorie,  which  represents  the 
heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  four  pounds 
of  water  through  one  degree  Fahrenheit.  One  pound 
of  either  protein  or  carbohydrates  contains  1860  calor- 

17 


38          PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

ies,  while  one  pound  of  fat  contains  4220  calories. 
Using  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  for  a  1000- 
poimd  cow  giving  12  quarts  (22  pounds)  of  milk  per 
day  and  a  looo-pound  steer  gaining  15  pounds  per 
week,  it  will  be  found  that  the  cow's  daily  ration 
contains  30,940  calories,  from  which  she  makes  milk 
containing  9,334  calories ;  and  that  the  steer's  daily 
ration  contains  34,660  calories,  from  which  he  makes 
meat  containing  6,045  calories.  One  calorie  in  milk 
requires,  therefore,  (30,940-^9,334)  3.3  calories  in  the 
food,  while  one  calorie  in  the  beef  requires  (34,660-^- 
6,045)  5-4  calories  in  the  food.  This  shows  that  64 
per  cent  more  energy  is  expended  by  the  steer  in 
elaborating  food  in  the  form  of  meat  than  is  ex- 
pended by  the  cow  in  elaborating  the  same  quantity 
in  the  form  of  milk.  The  dairy  industry,  therefore, 
is  bound  to  grow  as  the  population  of  the  world  in- 
creases and  the  demand  for  meat  forces  prices  up- 
wards, and  as  labor  connected  with  dairying  be- 
comes correspondingly  more  plentiful  and  less 
costly,  making  milk  products  much  more  econom- 
ically produced  than  at  present. 

The  dairy  cow  is  a  machine,  as  it  were,  for  con- 
verting foodstuffs  into  milk.  Unlike  the  beef  animal, 
which  is  its  own  storehouse,  placing  its  product  within 
its  carcass,  the  dairy  cow  gives  up  each  day  that  which 
she  produces.  She  has  been  developed  along  lines 
quite  the  opposite  from  those  of  the  beef  animal.  In 
her  development,  performance,  as  indicated  by  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  milk  given,  has  been  the  chief 
guide  in  making  selections.  The  most  perfect  beef 
cows  are  not  economical  milkers  and  the  best  dairy 
cows  are  not  satisfactory  beef  makers.  The  two  func- 
tions are  quite  different,  making  it  impossible  to  de- 
velop both  to  the  highest  degree  in  one  animal.  The 
cow  to  be  most  profitable  from  a  dairy  point  of 
view  must  be  able  to  secrete  the  largest  quantity  of 
milk  from  the  least  expenditure  for  food. 


THE  DAIRY  COW.  39 

Dairy  Type.  —  In  no  farm  animal  does  type  or  in- 
dividuality affect  profits  more  than  in  the  dairy  cow. 
It  ordinarily  costs  no  more  to  feed  a  cow  which  will 
produce  300  Ibs.  of  butter  per  year  than  one  which  will 
produce  but  150  Ibs.  A  difference  of  150  Ibs.  per  year 
for  a  period  of  six  years,  making  a  total  of  900  Ibs.  in 
favor  of  the  better  cow,  is  a  matter  which  cannot  con- 
sistently be  ignored  by  the  farmer,  and  this  range  in 
production  among.  the  individuals  of  a  herd  is  not  un- 
usual. 

The  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  has  furnished 
valuable  data  to  show  the  relative  economy  of  dif- 
ferent types  of  cows,  as  given  below.  Individual 
records  would  show  a  still  greater  contrast. 


£3    Sg^    SS-.S     M     *3 


I.  Beef    type 3  1,240  20.81  16.66  31.25  17.5 

II.  Less  of  beef  type. . .  4  945  20.37  21.02  26.42  15.1 
III.  Lacking      depth      of 

body    3  875  19.95  23.00  25.54  14.6 

IV.  Dairy  type 12  951  21.86  23.58  21.15  12.1 

At  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Station  it  was 
found  that  the  average  of  several  cows  of  dairy  type 
produced  milk  at  a  cost  of  $0.69  per  hundred,  where- 
as cows  beefy  in  type  produced  milk  at  a  cost  of 
$1.00  per  hundred.  The  South  Dakota  Station,  in  a 
recent  test,  found  that  the  beef  cows  required  one- 
third  more  grain  for  each  pound  of  milk  than  did  the 
dairy  cows.  This  difference  is  not  necessarily  be- 
tween beef  and  dairy  breeds,  as  individuals  within 
one  of  the  special  purpose  dairy  breeds  very  com- 
monly show  a  contrast  as  striking.  It  is  purely  a 
question  of  individual  capacity,  which  is  usually 
associated  with  a  certain  conformation  of  body, 
called  dairy  type.  Such  types  are  most  commonly 


4O  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

found  in  so-called  dairy  breeds,  of  which  the  Jersey, 
Holstein-Friesian  and  Guernsey  are  the  most  com- 
mon in  America. 

The  body  of  the  dairy  cow  should  be  deep  and 
roomy,  especially  in  the  abdominal  region  where  diges- 
tion, assimilation,  and  milk  secretion  largely  take 
place.  Unlike  the  beef  cow,  which  is  more  box  like  in 
form,  the  dairy  cow  approaches  more  nearly  the 
wedge  shape,  in  that  she  is  comparatively  narrow  in 
front,  widening  out  and  deepening  toward  the  rear. 
The  dairy  cow  consumes  a  large  proportion  of 
roughage  and  therefore  needs  a  large  paunch,  or 
barrel. 

Whereas  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  beef  animal 
closely  knit  and  compact  in  type  for  early  maturity 
and  quick  fleshing  qualities,  the  dairy  cow  should 
be  more  loosely  constructed.  Her  head  and  neck 
should  correlate  with  her  body,  all  being  rather  long 
in  proportion  to  her  size.  Both  the  ribs  and  vertebrae 
of  the  back  should  be  wide  spaced.  The  hip  bones 
should  be  sharp  and  prominent,  the  rump  narrow  and 
sloping,  giving  an  angular  appearance  in  the  region  of 
the  pelvic  bones.  The  twist,  or  space  between  the  hind 
legs,  should  be  open  to  give  room  for  a  large  and 
evenly  quartered  udder.  The  milk  vein  extending 
from  the  udder  forward  to  the  middle  of  the  abdomen 
should  also  be  large. 

The  score-card  enumerates  other  points  in  judging 
the  dairy  cow,  many  of  which  are  of  minor  significance 
to  the  practical  dairyman.  The  dairy  cow  should 
never  become  heavy  in  flesh  even  with  a  most  liberal 
feeding.  To  be  a  most  perfect  machine  she  must  con- 
vert practically  all  of  her  food,  above  maintenance, 
into  milk,  putting  on  just  enough  flesh  to  give  her 
needed  protection.  The  bony,  angular  appearance 
of  the  cow  large  in  paunch  is  not  always  pleasing 
to  the  eye,  but  it  means  profit  to  the  owner. 


'  THE  DAIRY   COW. 


Good    dairy    type — High    grade    Jersey,    weight    725    Ibs. ;    average 
yearly  record,  1897-1902,  butter  369  Ibs.,  milk  7,378  Ibs. 


Inferior  dairy  type — H 
one  year,  1 


grade  Jersey,   weight  750   Ibs. ;   record 
butter  62  Ibs.,  milk  1,279  Ibs. 


42  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

The  Score-Card  for  Dairy  Cows,  as  arranged  by 
Prof.  T.  L.  Haecker,  is  a  deduction  from  observa- 
tions made  on  the  University  of  Minnesota  herd, 
covering  twelve  years'  work,  during  which  time 
complete  records  were  kept  of  food  consumed  and 
products  yielded  by  each  cow,  these  being  com- 
pared with  her  conformation. 

Scale  of  points  for  dairy  cows,  as  arranged  by  Haecker  of 
the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station: 
Temperament — 30.  Counts. 

1.  Eye,   full,   expressive    5 

2.  Face,  clean,  rather  long,  nostrils  open,  large 3 

3.  Neck,  light,  rather  long,  "ewe  necked" 3 

4.  Withers,    sharp    3 

5.  Shoulders,  light,  spare   3 

6.  Spinal  column,  prominent   4 

7.  Croup,  strong,  high,  sharp 4 

8.  Hip  points,  sharp,  low 1 

9.  Pin  bones,  sharp,   far  apart 1 

10.     Thighs,   spare,   incurving 3 

Feeding  Powers — 25. 

1.  Body,  deep  through  the  middle 10 

2.  Body,  broad  through  the  middle 8 

3.  Body,  long  from  shoulder  to  hips 5 

4.  Muzzle,   broad    . .- 1 

5.  Jaws,    strong    1 

Disposition — 12. 

1.  Eye,  placid,  not  too  open 5 

2.  Face,  straight,  broad  between  eyes 2 

3.  Head,  "carried  not  too  high  nor  too  low 2 

4.  Movement  of  eyes,  ears  and  body  rather  slow 3 

Mammary  Organs — 13. 

1.  Udder,  large,  well  balanced 6 

2.  Teats,  Jong,  not  conical,  well  spaced 2 

3W     Milk  veins,  prominent,  long,  tortuous    2 

4.     Milk  wells,  capacious b 

Quality — 12. 

1.  Per  cent  fat  in  milk 6 

2.  Coat,  fine.,  soft,  rather  oily 2 

3.  Skin,  rather  firm  and  medium  thin 2 

4.  Yellow  in  ears   2 

Symmetry — 8. 

1.  Bony  structure,  fine 2 

2.  Tailhead,    straight,   tail   tapering 1 

3.  Medium  breadth  across  hips  and  loins % 

4.  Medium  length  from  hips  to  pin  bones % 

5.  Full  in  region  of  heart 1 

6.  Flank,  high,   arching    2 

7.  Legs,  straight  and  rather  short 1 

Perfection    ,  ..100 


THE   DAIRY    COW. 


43 


Fig.    3. 

Good  Dairy  Types. 
Fig.  1.     Holstein  cow,  record  in  1904,  at  4  years  of  age:  butter, 

468  Ibs. ;   milk,   10,896   Ibs. 
Fig.   2.     Grade   Shorthorn-Jersey   cow,   record  in   1901,  at  6  years 

of  age  :  butter,  470  Ibs. ;  milk,  9,419  Ibs. 

Fig.  3.     Pure-bred   Shorthorn   cow,   record   in   1903,  at  5  years   of 
age:  butter,  418  Ibs.;  milk,   7,537  Ibs. 


44  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

CANADIAN  SCORE-CARD. 

Suggested  Scale  of  Points — Bulls. 

Dairy  Temperament.  Points. 

Head,    lean,    masculine    in    appearance   and    of    fine 

contour   3 

Neck,  thin,  rather  long,  ewe-necked 3 

Shoulders,  light  and  spare,  withers  sharp 3 

Croups,  high,  straight  and  sharp 2 

Spine  and  ribs,  spine  prominent,  but  not  to  same  de- 
gree as  in  cow,  vertebrae  and  ribs  open  spaced ....  3 

Thighs,  thin  and  incurving,  flank  high 3 

Pelvic  arch,  prominent,  strong  and  sharp 2 

Tail,  long  and  tapering 1 

—  20 
Feeding  Powers. 

Barrel,  depth  from  line  of  back  to  navel 10 

Barrel,  length  of  body  from  shoulder  to  hook  points.      7 

Barrel,  breadth  of  body  through  middle 6 

Muzzle,  broad ;  jaw  strong 2 

—  25 
Disposition. 

Eyes,  large,  prominent,  bright,  intelligent  and  placid     3 

Face,  broad  between  eyes 1 

Movement  of  ears  and  body,  rather  slow;  not  restless     1 

—  5 
Quality. 

Skin,  loose,  thin,  mellow,  with  fine  soft  hair 6 

Skin,  deep  yellow  in  ears  and  on  and  around  escutcheon     4 

—  10 
Dairy  Indications. 

Embryo  teats,  not  less  than  four  well  developed  em- 
bryo teats,  well  forward  and  wide  apart,  with 
amplitude  of  skin  on  rear  part  of  underline 3 

Escutcheon,  high  and  wide . 2 

—  5 
Constitution. 

Chest,  deep,  wide  through  heart;  full  behind  and  a 

little  above  elbows ;  large  girth  of  chest 6 

Nostrils,  large ;  open 2 

Loins,  broad    2 

—  10 
Symmetry. 

Horns,  not  large  nor  coarse ;  curved ;  white  with  black 
tips  or  vice  versa 1 

Legs,  rather  short;  straight  and  well  placed 2 

Color,  black  or  very  dark  brown,  with  or  without 
brown,  fawn  or  cream  colored  muzzle,  and  an  or- 
ange brown  or  gray  stripe  on  back 10 

General  appearance,  including  style  and  movement. .  12 

—  25 

100 


THE   DAIRY   COW.  45 

Winter  Milk  Production  Can  be  Made  Most 
Profitable. — The  farmer  who  keeps  a  fair-sized  herd 
of  cows  will  ordinarily  find  that  there  is  more  profit  in 
having-  them  fresh  in  the  tall  than  in  the  spring,  (i) 
Butter  is  worth  from  25  to  50  per  cent  more  in  winter 
than  in  summer.  (2)  Dairying  requires  labor,  which 
is  much  cheaper  in  winter  than  in  summer.  (3)  With 
good  housing  facilities  and  rather  high-priced  land, 
farm  foods  are  nearly  as  economically  used  in  winter 
as  pasture  is  in  summer.  In  fact  with  alfalfa,  which 
cannot  be  pastured,  and  corn  silage,  we  have  winter 
foods  quite  as  cheap  as  summer  pasture.  (4)  Cows 
which  have  produced  milk  all  winter  tend  to  keep  up 
the  flow  when  turned  on  fresh  grass  in  the  spring, 
drying  off  as  hot  weather,  dry  pastures  and  trouble- 
some flies  come  in  late  summer,  that  season  of  the 
year  when  it  is  most  difficult  to  make  cows  comfortable 
and  productive.  Ex-Governor  Hoard  of  Wisconsin, 
one  of  the  most  successful  dairymen  in  the  United 
States,  is  authority  for  the  statement  that  cows  will 
produce  from  1,000  to  1,200  pounds  more  milk,  when 
fresh  in  the  fall  rather  than  in  the  spring.  Nor  are 
the  advantages  in  favor  of  winter  dairying  confined 
to  the  cow.  The  farmer  has  much  more  time  at  his 
disposal  for  feeding  skim-milk  calves  in  winter,  and 
the  calves  can  be  made  to  do  better  on  winter  foods 
as  supplements  to  milk  than  on  watery  grass  at  a 
season  of  the  year  when  flies  are  extremely  annoy- 
ing to  young  calves.  At  weaning  time  in  the  spring 
they  are  old  enough  to  gain  their  entire  subsistence 
from  grass,  thus  receiving  bulky  food  at  a  period 
when  most  needed. 

Winter  Shelter. — The  function  of  milk  secretion 
in  the  cow  is  one  which  seems  to  be  very  susceptible 
to  temperature  changes.  Either  extreme,  excessively 
hot  or  excessively  cold  weather,  causes  a  shrinkage 
in  milk  flow,  and  while  the  latter  is  more  harmful  in 


46  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

its  effects,  it  can  be  more  easily  controlled.  The  dairy 
cow  needs  artificial  protection  from  cold  weather, 
because  she  has  no  surplus  fat  about  her  body  to 
hold  the  warmth  within.  In  this  she  is  very  unlike 
the  beef  steer.  The  weather  would  have  to  be  very 
frigid  indeed  to  make  a  fat  steer  hump  its  back, 
while  such  a  thing  in  the  dairy  cow  is  a  very  com- 
mon sight — far  too  common.  Were  one  in  a  posi- 
tion to  fully  realize  the  consequences  of  such  dis- 
comfort to  the  cow,  the  practice  of  running  the  herd 
in  the  stalk  fields  or  other  exposed  places  during 
cold  weather  would  be  quickly  abandoned. 

The  Hollanders  keep  their  cows  sheltered  day  and 
night  during  the  winter  months.  Their  success  as  a 
dairy  people  would  lead  one  to  believe  that  their  judg- 
ment in  this  matter  must  be  good.  For  American  con- 
ditions, the  consensus  of  opinion  among  our  success- 
ful practical  dairymen,  as  well  as  investigators,  is  that 
dairy  cows  should  be  provided  with  warm,  but  ven- 
tilated shelters,  whether  these  be  modern  barns  or 
inexpensive  straw  hovels.  Nor  should  cows  be  ex- 
pected to  rough  the  weather  during  the  day.  Cows 
are  better  off  in  the  barn  on  cold  days,  though  a  well 
protected  and  well  bedded  shed,  which  permits  the 
cattle  to  roam  at  will,  is  more  satisfactory,  because 
in  such  sheds  coarse  feed  can  be  handled  to  better 
advantage. 

Barn  stalls  should  be  provided  with  gutters  which 
carry  off  liquid  manure,  and  at  the  same  time  keep 
the  cows  clean.  This  they  do  especially  well 
when  the  mangers  are  built  on  a  slant  in  such  a 
way  as  to  force  the  cows  to  step  back  when  stand- 
ing, the  tie  compelling  them  to  move  forward  when 
about  to  lie  down.  Floors  are  sometimes  made  of 
cement,  which  is  more  lasting  and  easier  to  keep 
clean,  but  colder  in  winter  than  plank  floors. 
Stanchions  are  still  used,  though  some  sort  of  a  tie, 


THE  DAIRY   COW.  47 

Or  a  chain  behind,  gives  them  more  freedom  and 
therefore  more  comfort. 

The  work  connected  with  the  management  of  a 
dairy  herd  is  great  enough  to  make  it  worth  while 
to  have  arrangements  for  feeding  and  cleaning  sta- 
bles as  convenient  as  possible.  The  manure  may 
be  placed  in  heaps  near  the  barn,  but  with  several 
cows,  it  involves  less  labor  in  the  end  to  haul  and 
scatter  the  manure  each  day  where  it  is  wanted  in 
the  field.  Bedding  should  always  be  used  freely. 
.  Water  tanks  are  sometimes  placed  inside  where 
the  temperature  is  such  as  to  keep  the  water 'sufficiently 
warm.  If  the  tanks  are  placed  outside,  a  good  tank 
heater  should  be  used.  These  are  small  contrivances 
which  can  be  purchased  for  a  few  dollars.  They  not 
only  save  the  labor  of  cutting  out  the  ice  each  day, 
but  also  warm  the  water  to  such  a  degree  as  will 
encourage  cows  to  drink  freely,  thus  promoting  milk 
secretion.  Cows  which  will  not  drink  water  because  of 
its  chilling  effects  can  not  do  their  best.  The  cost  of 
fuel  used  by  tank  heaters,  whether  coal  or  wood,  is 
quite  insignificant  in  comparison  with  their  value 
during  cold  weather. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

FUNDAMENTALS  IN  FEEDING  THE  DAIRY 
COW. 

The  quantity  of  milk  produced  by  the  cow  depends 
upon  the  amount  and  character  of  feed  supplied,  as 
well  as  upon  her  individual  equipment.  Here  man's 
skill  makes  itself  manifest  in  supplying  her  wants  most 
perfectly,  or  his  ignorance  is  exposed  in  failing  to  meet 
her  requirements.  All  cows  should  be  permitted  to  do 
their  best,  which  can  only  be  done  when  external 
conditions  are  made  favorable  for  a  maximum  pro- 
duction. 

The  economical  conversion  of  food  into  milk  re- 
quires (i)  that  the  nutrients  be  supplied  in  a  quan- 
tity that  will  fully  satisfy  the  needs  of  the  cow  and  in 
proportions  that  will  make  possible  the  utilization  of 
all  without  undue  'loss ;  (2)  that  they  come  from  in- 
expensive sources,  which  means  the  use  of  rough- 
ness to  the  extent  that  its  bulk  does  not  seriously 
interfere  with  nutritive  processes,  and  also  the  use 
of  less  costly  concentrates,  so  long  as  they  meet,  or 
at  least  closely  approach,  physiological  require- 
ments ;  and  (3)  that  at  least  a  part  of  the  ration  be 
of  a  succulent  nature. 

Quantity  of  Food. — It  has  already  been  mentioned 
that  animals  require  about  half  of  a  full  feed  for  sim- 
ple maintenance.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  German 
standards  call  for  eighteen  pounds  of  dry  matter  for 
a  i,ooo-pound  steer  at  rest,  which  if  true  would  be 
approximately  correct  for  the  dairy  cow.  These  stan- 
dards also  call  for  thirty-two  pounds  of  dry  matter  for 
a  cow  giving  a  large  milk  flow.  Since  it  is  this  extra 

48 


FUNDAMENTALS   IN    FEEDING  THE  DAIRY   COW.       49 

fourteen  pounds  which  produces  the  milk,  it  is  appar- 
ent that  liberal  feeding  is  more  economical  than  under- 
feeding. The  more  feed  consumed,  the  more  economi- 
cal is  the  production,  so  long  as  the  digestive  system 
is  not  deranged  by  overcrowding,  which  is  not  likely 
to  occur  when  roughness  is  used  liberally.  The 
farmer  should  be  heedful  that  the  cows  have  all 
they  want,  and  yet  are  not  permitted  to  waste  feed 
by  having  too  much  supplied  at  one  time. 

In  respect  to  nutrients  it  may  be  said  that  the 
German  standards  call  for  .7  Ib.  of  protein  for  simply 
maintaining  a  i,ooo-lb.  cow.  If  she  is  giving  22  Ibs. 
of  milk  per  day,  there  will  be  required  about  .9  Ib. 
of  protein  to  produce  the  casein  and  albumen  of  the 
milk.  A  certain  amount  of  protein  is  also  consumed 
by  the  animal  organism  in  the  process  of  milk  forma- 
tion. The  old  and  accepted  standards  formulated  by 
Wolff  and  others  specify  that  a  i,ooo-lb.  cow  giving 
22  Ibs.  of  milk  per  day  needs,  in  all,  2l/2  Ibs.  of  pro- 
tein per  day.  If  this  is  true,  it  would  seem  that  an 
unreasonably  large  quantity  of  protein  must  be  con- 
sumed in  the  process  of  milk  formation.  American 
investigators  are  advocating  less  protein,  and  their 
experiments  tend  to  prove  that  less  than  2.5  Ibs.  is 
actually  needed.  Haecker,  of  the  Minnesota  Experi- 
ment Station,  has  recently  furnished  data  to  sustain 
this  view.  In  his  experiments  it  was  found  that  a 
daily  allowance  of  2.63  pounds  of  protein  gave  no 
greater  milk  or  butter  yield  than  2.09  pounds,  or 
even  1.9  pounds.  In  fact,  somewhat  less  total  di- 
gestible nutrients  were  required  for  the  same  milk 
and  butter  yield  when  the  daily  ration  contained 
but  1.9  pounds  of  protein.  There  was,  however, 
with  this  small  protein  allowance  a  daily  loss  in  body 
weight  of  .13  pound.  With  the  2.09  pounds  of  pro- 
tein there  was  a  daily  gain  of  .12  pound,  and  with 
the  2.63  pounds  a  daily  gain  of  .20  pound.  From 


5O  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

those  tests  it  would  seem  that  mature  cows  produce 
milk  more  economically  with  an  allowance  of  pro- 
tein much  below  the  requirements  as  laid  down  in 
the  German  standards,  though  with  the  small  allow- 
ance of  protein  (1.9  pounds)  in  which  the  nutritive 
ratio  was  I  no  there  was  a  loss  of  flesh.  In  the 
words  of  the  investigator:  "Each  winter  the  cows 
that  have  a  nutritive  ratio  of  I  :io  get  exceedingly 
poor  by  spring.  The  cows  seem  to  be  able  to  make 
as  great  return  during  the  winter  on  a  nutritive  ratio 
of  i  no  as  they  can  on  a  narrower  one,  but  during 
the  summer  they  begin  to  fail  in  yield  of  mil^." 
In  Haecker's  opinion  the  nutritive  ratio  for  a  mature 
milk  cow  should  be  about  1 :8. 

Woll,  of  the  Wisconsin  Station,  made  an  average 
of  the  rations  fed  by  fifteen  successful  dairymen  of 
that  state,  comparing  this  also  with  rations  in  New 
York  and  Connecticut.  His  investigations,  founded 
on  American  feeding  experience,  lead  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  a  i,ooo-pound  cow  in  full  flow  of  milk  re- 
quires per  day  25.6  pounds  dry  matter  containing 
digestible  nutrients  in  pounds  as  follows :  protein, 
2.2;  carbohydrates,  13.3;  fat,  .8 — nutritive  ratio, 
1 16.9. 

From  the  fact  that  each  cow  in  the  herds  examined 
averaged  per  year  5,806  pounds  of  milk  and  291  pounds 
of  butter,  and  that  the  average  per  cow  for  the  entire 
state  of  Wisconsin  at  the  time  was  125  pounds 
of  butter  per  year,  it  would  seem  that  the  rations  fed  by 
the  fifteen  different  dairymen  must  have  been  good, 
though  a  part  of  the  difference  was  no  doubt  due  to 
the  greater  individual  capacity  of  the  cows  in  question. 
Investigations  at  the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station 
show  that  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 15.4  gave  a  butter  yield 
12.8  per  cent  larger  than  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 18.9, 
and  that  the  best  yield  was  made  on  a  nutritive  ratio  of 
1 16.5.  The  Vermont  Station  found  that  a  nutritive 


FUNDAMENTALS    IN    FEEDING   THE   DAIRY    COW.     5! 

ratio  of  1 15.8  gave  a  7  per  cent  better  yield  than  1 19, 
which  would  indicate  that  the  best  nutritive  ratio  is  a 
little  nearer  1 15.8  than  1 19.  An  investigator  in  Den- 
mark reports  1 :6  as  the  best.  The  Connecticut  Ex- 
periment Station  states  that  a  cow  requires  from  1.8 
to  2.6  pounds  of  protein  per  day,  depending  upon  her 
milk  flow.  All  recent  investigations,  more  particularly 
those  in  the  United  States,  point  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  cow  needs  less  protein  than  is  stipulated  in  the 
German  standards.  This  agrees  with  Atwater's 
conclusions  in  his  investigations  witji  human  diet- 
aries, the  difference  between  American  and  Euro- 
pean requirements,  in  his  estimation,  being  attribut- 
able to  the  fact  that  American  foods  are  compara- 
tively low  in  protein  and  high  in  carbohydrates  and 
fats. 

Quantity  of  Milk  as  a  Factor  in  Determining  Food 
Requirements. — In  supplying  the  needs  of  a  cow, 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  quantity  of  milk 
the  cow  is  capable  of  producing.  It  is  apparent 
that  inasmuch  as  a  relatively  small  amount  of  pro- 
tein is  needed  to  maintain  the  body  of  the  cow 
and  the  remainder  goes  to  produce  milk,  the  cow 
which  gives  a  large  flow  of  milk  needs  more  protein 
than  another  giving  a  relatively  small  quantity.  It  is 
likewise  true  that  a  cow  when  fresh  and  giving  a 
large  flow  requires  a  higher  per  cent  of  protein  than 
when  well  along  in  lactation.  It  will  be  noted  that 
in  the  Standards  as  printed  in  the  appendix  the  re- 
quirements are  given  for  cows  producing  variable 
quantities  of  milk,  which  requirements  for  protein, 
as  has  been  suggested,  may  reasonably  be  reduced 
10  per  cent  for  American  conditions. 

The  per  cent  of  fat  produced  by  a  cow  is  another 
factor  which  should  influence  the  character  of  the 
ration.  It  has  been  demonstrated  at  the  Cornell 
Station,  and  elsewhere,  that  the  per  cent  of  butter 


52  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

fat  remains  almost  constant,  no  matter  how  the  cow 
is  fed.  In  other  words,  the  fat  percentage  is  deter- 
mined by  the  individual,  and  not  by  the  feed.  Poor 
feeding  reduces  the  flow  of  milk,  lessening  thereby 
the  total  production  of  butter  fat,  but  the  percentage 
is  influenced  scarcely  any  by  the  character  of  the 
food.  The  cow,  therefore,  which  tests  5  per  cent 
butter  fat  should  have  more  non-nitrogenous  food 
than  the  cow  which  tests  but  3  per  cent  butter  fat. 
If  a  ration,  perfectly  balanced  to  meet  the  actual  re- 
quirements of  a  3  per  cent  cow,  is  fed  to  a  5  per  cent 
cow  of  the  same  weight,  some  protein  may  be  con- 
verted into  fat,  which  is  an  unnecessary  expense.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  ration  well  balanced  for  the  5 
per  cent  cow  will  be  deficient  in  that  nutrient  if 
fed  to  the  3  per  cent  cow,  and  a  shrinkage  in  the 
flow  of  milk  will  take  place. 

Haecker  has  formulated  feeding  standards  which 
give  recognition  to  quality  as  well  as  quantity  of 
milk  produced  by  a  cow.  An  abridgement  of  his 
standard,  which  goes  into  considerable  detail,  is  as 
follows : 

Nutrients  required  for  the  production  of  one  pound  of 

Protein.     Carbohydrates.     Fat. 

Thin  milk 04  .21  .015 

Medium  milk   045  .24  .017 

Kich  milk    05  .28  .019 

The  average  farmer  might  not  find  it  convenient 
to  feed  each  cow  a  separate  ration  to  accord  with 
the  per  cent  of  butter  fat  she  produces,  though  it 
would  be  practicable  to  feed  a  herd  in  groups  if 
there  is  much  variation  in  the  per  cent.  Whatever 
is  herein  suggested  in  the  way  of  rations  will  be  for 
average  milk  under  average  conditions. 

Feeding  Standards  Merely  Guides. — From  what 
has  been  said  it  is  apparent  that  no  one  knows  the  ex- 
act requirements  for  dairy  cows  or  any  other  class  of 


FUNDAMENTALS    IN    FEEDING   THE  DAIRY    COW.      53 

animals,  though  from  recent  investigations,  as  re- 
viewed above,  it  would  seem  that  a  i,ooo-pound  cow 
does  not  require  more  than  2.2  pounds  of  protein, 
and  that  a  nutritive  ratio  between  1 :6  and  1 17.5,  de- 
pending on  quantity  and  quality  of  milk,  gives  the 
largest  production.  It  would  be  folly  to  attempt  to 
follow  standards  with  strict  mathematical  accuracy, 
owing  to  individual  differences  in  animals  and  the 
fact  that  foodstuffs  are  likely  to  vary  slightly  in 
composition.  A  standard  should  be  used  merely  as 
a  guide  to  be  followed  with  reasonable  precision, 
yet  varied  in  practice  to  conform  with  current  prices 
on  foodstuffs. 

If  a  slight  deviation  is  to  be  made  in  America,  more 
particularly  in  the  West,  it  should  be  to  supply  less  pro- 
tein, since  our  corn  and  certain  rough  feeds  rich  in 
starch  are  usually  so  cheap  in  comparison  with 
other  foods  that  we  are  justified  in  making  a  large 
use  of  them,  even  though  it  means  a  slight  waste  of 
starch.  But  it  is  quite  unnecessary  to  warn  against 
feeding  protein  in  excess.  The  average  farmer  of 
America  shuns  the  higher  priced 'protein  foods  to 
such  an  extent  that  he  more  often  uses  a  ration  too 
wide  (excessively  starchy)  for  the  largest  or  even 
most  economical  production. 

The  Proportion  of  Roughness  to  Concentrates. — 
No  farm  animal  is  able  to  utilize  a  larger  amount  of 
rough  feed  for  heavy  production  than  the  cow.  Being 
a  ruminant,  she  has  four  stomachs,  and  this  gives  her 
a  large  digestive  capacity,  making  her  especially 
adapted  for  the  utilization  of  considerable  bulky 
food,  which  is,  of  course,  much  cheaper  than  grains. 
She  becomes  uneasy  if  not  supplied  with  a  certain 
amount  of  bulk,  but  if  too  much  is  fed,  the  work  of 
milk  elaboration  is  lessened  because  of  the  excessive 
expenditure  of  energy  in  the  act  of  mastication. 
With  average  field-cured  hay  or  other  fodder,  it 


54  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

seems  that  a  cow  in  full  milk  is  able  to  produce  most 
profitably  when  the  roughness  fed  amounts  to  about 
twice  the  weight  of  the  grain,  or  concentrated  por- 
tion of  her  ration,  though  experiment  stations 
abroad  and  in  Eastern  states  have  recently  shown 
that  a  little  less  grain  is  most  economical,  especially 
when  grain  is  relatively  high  in  price.  It  is  not 
practicable  to  weigh  roughness,  but  rather  to  feed 
the  allowance  of  grain  desired,  and  then  provide  all 
the  rough  food  that  will  be  consumed  in  addition. 

Succulent  feeds,  such  as  green  crops  fed  freshly 
cut,  silage,  roots,  etc.,  add  so  much  to  the  effectiveness 
of  a  ration  for  milk  production  that  considerable  space 
is  given  to  them  elsewhere  in  this  book.  No  food  is 
superior  to  green  grass  for  milk  production.  Just 
why  this  grass  dried  in  the  sun  and  fed  in  connection 
with  water  is  less  desirable,  it  is  difficult  to  say, 
though  it  is  likely  due  to  lessened  pa'latability  and 
toughened  cellular  fibre.  Something  to  take  the 
place  of  green  grass  to  furnish  succulence  in  winter 
is  advantageous. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

WINTER  RATIONS  IN  THE  CORN  BELT. 

Corn  is  chiefly  relied  upon  as  the  basic  part  of 
grain  rations  for  dairy  cows  in  America,  because  (i) 
this  plant  produces  abundantly  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  country,  particularly  in  the  states  comprising  the  so- 
called  corn-belt;  (2)  it  can  be  grown  and  harvested 
with  comparatively  little  expense;  (3)  it  is  a  concen- 
trated source  of  nutriment;  (4)  it  is  extremely  pala- 
table ;  and  (5)  it  is  easily  masticated  and  readily  as- 
similated. America  alone  produces  more  corn  than 
all  other  countries  combined.  It  is  because  of  this 
heavy  production  that  corn  rules  lower  in  price  per 
pounds  of  digestible  nutrients  than  any  other  concen- 
trated food.  But  corn  alone  is  not  suitable  for  dairy 
cows,  because  (i)  it  is  deficient  in  protein,  and  (2) 
it  is  too  concentrated.  In  view  of  these  circum- 
stances, feeding  for  economical  milk  production  re- 
solves itself  into  the  question  of  how  to  supplement 
corn  with  other  foods  to  make  it  produce  to  the  best 
advantage.  Were  corn  to  be  supplemented  with 
but  one  food,  that  food  should  be  rich  enough  in 
protein  to  balance  corn,  and,  further,  should  be  a 
roughness  in  order  to  supply  the  necessary  bulk. 
There  are  four  fodder  plants  belonging  to  a  family 
called  Legumes,  any  one  of  which  will  fulfill  both 
of  the  requirements. 

The  Legumes  include  a  number  of  plants  which 
have  the  power  of  drawing  free  nitrogen  from  the  air 
and  storing  it  in  the  roots  of  the  plants.  The  four  re- 
ferred to  in  common  use  are  alfalfa  and  clover  in 
the  North,  and  cowpeas  and  soy  beans,  more  com- 


56  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

monly  grown  in  the  South.  On  the  roots  of  these 
plants  are  little  tubercles,  varying  from  the  size  of 
pinheads  on  clover  and  alfalfa  to  garden  peas  on 
the  cowpea  and  soy  bean.  In  these  tubercles  are 
living  organisms  extremely  minute  which,  in  some 
way  not  well  understood,  absorb  air  from  the  pores 
in  the  soil,  converting  the  nitrogen  therefrom  into 
compounds  available  for  plant  growth.  It  is  this 
power  of  absorbing  nitrogen  which  makes  these 
legumes  rich  in  protein,  and  therefore  valuable  for 
supplementing  corn. 

Alfalfa  Hay. — Though  this  hay  plant  is  compara- 
tively new  in  America,  the  satisfaction  that  it  has 
given  feeders  of  all  classes  of  stock  is  so  thoroughly 
complete  that  it  is  now  prominently  before  the 
public.  But  while  alfalfa  is  being  talked  and  written 
about  over  the  country,  its  extensive  growth  is  con- 
fined to  a  relatively  limited  section — more  particu- 
larly to  the  arid  and  semiarid  West  and  territory 
adjacent.  It  is  popular  in  the  arid  sections,  because 
it  does  well  under  irrigation ;  it  is  popular  in  semi- 
arid  parts,  because  its  long  roots  permit  it  to  flourish 
when  many  other  plants  succumb  to  the  dry  weather. 
With  proper  methods  of  culture,  it  is  now  coming 
into  popularity  in  more  eastern  or  humid  sections, 
where  it  was  formerly  thought  it  could  not  succeed. 
In  recognition  of  its  high  feeding  value,  which  has 
become  thoroughly  impressed  upon  the  mind  of  the 
writer  after  conducting  numerous  feeding  experi- 
ments, much  space  in  this  book  is  given  to  its  use 
for  all  classes  of  stock.  Its  merit,  combined  with 
its  newness  in  America,  makes  it  seem  wise  to  en- 
courage its  growth,  by  giving  a  brief  description  of 
methods  of  culture  in  an  appendix. 

The  chemical  analysis  of  alfalfa  shows  it  to  be  un- 
usually rich  in  protein  for  a  hay  crop.  In  order  to 
show  its  merits  as  a  source  of  protein,  the  following 


WINTER  RATIONS  IN  THE  CORN  BELT.  57 

feeding  experiments  are  reported. 

Alfalfa  vs.  Commercial  Protein  Foods. — At  the 
New  Jersey  Experiment  Station  a  test  was  made 
with  two  lots  of  dairy  cows,  alternating  the  rations 
during  successive  periods  of  fifteen  days  each,  to  learn 
the  comparative  value  of  alfalfa  and  a  combination  of 
wheat  bran  and  dried  brewers'  grains  as  sources  of 
protein.  The  rations  used  were  as  follows: 

Calcu- 

Costof    Dry        Total      lated 
rations,  matter,  protein,  nutritive 
Ration  I —  Cts.         Lbs.         Lbs.     ratio. 

35  pounds  silage    4.38         8.98  .58         

11  pounds  alfalfa  hay    3.50         9.95         1.46         

6  pounds  mixed  hay    1.60         4.84  .43          

2  pounds  cotton-seed  meal  ..     2.60         1.85  .94         

Total    12.08       25.62         3.41         1:5.6 

Ration  11 — 

35  pounds  silage     4.38  8.98  .58 

6  pounds  mixed  hay   1.60  4.84  .43 

4  pounds  wheat  bran .<  3.40  3.56  .61 

4  pounds  dried  brewers '  grains  3.40  3.67  .92 

2  pounds  cotton-seed  meal  . .  2.60  1.85  .94 

Total  15.38      22.90         3.48         1 :5.4 

In  this  test,  the  alfalfa  ration  produced  a  daily  aver- 
age of  20.8  pounds  of  milk  and  1.06  pounds  of  but- 
ter, while  the  bran  and  brewers'  grain  ration  pro- 
duced a  daily  average  of  21.8  pounds  of  milk  and 
1.08  pounds  of  butter,  only  a  slight  difference  in 
favor  of  the  more  concentrated  protein  foods.  Bran 
and  dried  brewers'  grains  each  cost  $17.00  per  ton, 
on  which  basis  alfalfa  hay  proved  to  be  worth  $11.16 
per  ton.  At  the  Maryland  Station,  alfalfa  and  corn- 
meal  gave  better  results  than  silage  and  commer- 
cial foods.  Where  alfalfa  and  silage  were  fed  with 
and  without  grain,  the  grain  proved  the  more 
economical. 


58  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

Experiments  at  the  Tennessee  Station  indicate 
that  il/2  pounds  of  alfalfa  will  replace  one  pound  of 
wheat  bran  (thus  confirming  the  New  Jersey  re- 
sults) and  that  three  pounds  of  alfalfa  are  equivalent 
to  one  pound  of  cottonseed  meal. 

Alfalfa  is  not  only  rich  in  protein,  but  is  very  pala- 
table and  easily  masticated  for  a  roughness,  being  con- 
sumed with  little  or  no  waste  when  well  cured.  In 
comparing  a  ration  consisting  of  corn  and  timothy 
with  one  containing  corn  and  alfalfa  for  a  1,000- 
pound  cow,  we  have  the  following  in  digestible  nu- 
trients : 

Dry  Carbo-          Nutritive 

matter.  Protein,  hydrates.  Fat.  ratio. 

Com,  10  Ibs 8.9  .79         6.67        .43 

Alfalfa,  20  Ibs 18.3         2.2  7.9  .24 

Total    27.2         2.99       14.57         .67         1 :5.4 

Corn,  10  Ibs 8.9          .79         6.67         .43 

Timothy,  20  Ibs 17.36         .56         8.68         .28 

Total    26.26       1.35       15.35         .71       1:12.6 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  alfalfa  ration  contains 
really  more  protein  than  is  necessary,  while  the  tim- 
othy ration  is  very  deficient  in  protein. 

In  a  Nebraska  test  where  alfalfa  was  compared 
with  prairie  hay,  the  latter  being  similar  to  timothy  in 
composition  and,  as  shown  by  a  Minnesota  test,  equiva- 
lent for  feeding  purposes,  the  alfalfa  produced  10 
per  cent  more  milk  from  somewhat  less  food.  Had  not 
wheat  bran  been  fed  with  corn,  no  doubt  the  differ- 
ence in  favor  of  alfalfa  would  have  been  still  greater. 

Corn  stover. — Since  alfalfa  and  corn,  as  given 
above,  furnish  more  protein  than  is  needed,  we 
would  be  justified  in  substituting  for  a  part  of  the  al- 
falfa some  roughage  less  rich  in  protein — unques- 
tionably so  when  it  can  be  had  at  less  expense.  The 
Utah  Station  found  that  stalks  added  to  corn  and 


WINTER  RATIONS  IN  THE  CORN  BELT.  59 

alfalfa  gave  larger  returns  per  unit  of  dry  matter 
than  alfalfa  without  stalks.  With  a  given  yield  of 
corn,  there  accompanies  it  practically  the  same 
weight  of  stover,  which,  being  a  by-product,  is 
cheaper  than  alfalfa.  Putting  with  the  corn,  then, 
the  same  weight  of  stalks,  or  stover,  which  grew 
with  it,  and  adding  2  Ibs.  more  of  alfalfa  to  partially 
offset  the  greater  water  content  of  corn  stalks,  we 
have : 

Dry  Carbo-          Nutritive 

matter.  Protein,  hydrates.  Fat.       ratio. 

Corn,    10    Ibs 8.91  .79         6.67         .43 

Corn  stover,  10  Ibs...     5.95  .17         3.24         .07 

Alfalfa,  12  Ibs 11.00         1.32         4.75         .14 

Total     25.86         2.28       14.66         .64         1:7.0 

Wolff  -  Lehmann       Standard 

for  22  Ibs.  milk 29.  2.5        13.  .5          1:5.7 

Woll  's  suggested  stand- 
ard    25.6          2.2        13.a          .8          1:6.9 

While  the  ration  contains  somewhat  less  protein  than 
the  German  standard  calls  for,  it  conforms  very  closely 
to  Woll's  suggested  standard,  which,  as  has  been 
shown,  is  more  nearly  in  accordance  with  American 
investigations.  If  wheat  bran  could  be  purchased 
at  a  price  per  pound  not  to  exceed  that  of  corn,  two 
to  four  pounds  could  be  introduced  as  a  substitute 
for  the  same  weight  of  both  corn  and  alfalfa,  giving 
variety  and  more  bulk  to  the  grain  ration,  both  of 
which  might  add  to  its  effectiveness. 

Corn  stover,  properly  cured,  is  relished  by  cows  and 
has  a  higher  food  value  than  farmers  ordinarily  give 
it.  The  corn  crop  should  be  cut  just  as  soon  as  the 
ears  are  ripe,  immediately  after  the  husks  become  yel- 
low, placed  in  medium-sized  shocks,  or  stocks,  and 
allowed  to  stand  in  the  field  a  few  weeks,  or  until 
dry  enough  to  husk,  when  it  can  be  stacked  or  put 
into  the  barn.  Some  prefer  to  have  the  corn  husked 
by  a  machine  which  also  shreds  the  stalks,  making 


60  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDINa 

the  latter  more  easily  masticated  and  the  waste 
more  useful  for  bedding.  If  this  can  be  done  without 
adding  materially  to  the  expense  of  husking,  it  no 
doubt  pays,  especially  when  it  is  to  be  fed  in  barns 
where  uncut  stover  would  be  cumbersome  to  handle. 
Well-cured  corn  stover  possesses  a  food  value  in- 
finitely above  that  of  stalks  left  standing  in  the  field, 
when  a  large  portion  of  the  starchy  matter  changes  to 
crude  fiber,  in  addition  to  the  loss  due  to  weathering. 
Furthermore,  harvested  stover  can  be  fed  in  protected 
yards  or  barns,  obviating  the  merciless  exposure 
— and  consequent  shrinkage  in  the  milk  flow — of  the 
cow  kept  in  the  stalk  field  during  severe  weather. 

Corn  fodder,  which  is  the  stalk  containing  the  ear, 
is  sometimes  fed  to  milch  cows.  While  this  prac- 
tice saves  the  expense  of  husking,  if  the  corn  is  all 
fed  in  this  way  it  is  rather  difficult  to  regulate  care- 
fully the  daily  allowance  of  grain,  a  matter  of  much 
more  importance  in  the  case  of  the  cow  than  the 
fattening  steer,  for  the  latter  is  supposed  to  have 
all  the  grain  that  he  will  consume.  Owing  to  the 
length  of  the  stalks,  it  is  also  unhandy  to  feed  such 
material  in  barn  mangers.  Could  the  grain  portion 
be  regulated  and  pigs  conveniently  run  behind  to 
pick  up  waste,  corn  fodder  would  be  practicable  for 
cows  as  well  as  fattening  cattle.  Fortunately,  the 
difficulties  encountered  with  corn  fodder  are  over- 
come and  another  desirable  factor,  known  as  suc- 
culence, added  by  feeding  the  corn  crop  in  the  shape 
of  silage. 

Corn  silage  is  the  whole  plant  cut  into  short 
pieces  and  preserved  in  an  air-tight  chamber,  called 
the  silo,  in  a  more  or  less  green  condition.  Silage  to 
farm  animals  is  as  much  more  palatable  than  dry  cured 
fodder,  as  canned  fruit  is  more  palatable  than  dried 
fruit  to  the  human  family.  Silage  and  canned  fruit 
are  preserved  in  much  the  same  way,  the  only  differ- 


WINTER  RATIONS  IN  THE  CORN  BELT.  6l 

ence  being  that  fruit  is  usually  first  heated  to  drive  out 
the  air  and  to  kill  bacteria,  which  are  always  present 
in  such  material.  Green  corn  is  cut  in  short  lengths 
and  placed  in  tall  silos,  so  that  it  will  be  pressed  down 
by  its  own  weight,  the  firm  packing  thus  driving  out 
all  air  except  the  little  which  unavoidably  remains  in 
the  spaces.  Fermentation  can  therefore  go  on  only  so 
long  as  the  oxygen  in  this  air  lasts,  when  the  germs 
die,  and  further  shrinkage  due  to  fermentation  ceases. 
It  has  been  estimated  by  King  that  the  loss  due  to  this 
fermentation  in  good  silos  amounts  to  about  10  per  cent 
of  the  original  material,  which  is  less  than  the  loss 
caused  by  weathering  in  the  field,  an  average  of  several 
tests  showing  this  to  be  20  per  cent. 

Silage  is  superior  to  corn  fodder  for  milk  produc- 
tion, as  shown  in  a  New  Jersey  test,  where  the  same 
weight  of  dry  matter  in  each  was  compared.  Silage 
gave  12.8  per  cent  more  milk  and  10.4  per  cent  more 
butter,  than  cured  corn  fodder  gave.  In  this  experi- 
ment it  was  estimated  that  the  cost  of  placing  corn  in 
the  silo  was  $i  1.22  per  acre,  and  that  of  shocking  and 
running  the  fodder  through  the  feed  cutter  was  $10.31 
per  acre.  The  acre  of  silage  produced  258  pounds 
more  milk  at  an  extra  cost  ot  $0.91.  Other  tests  have 
also  shown  the  superiority  of  silage  over  dry  fodder 
for  milk  production.  Silage  is  more  palatable  and 
more  easily  masticated  than  dry  fodder  and  is  con- 
sumed with  little  or  no  waste.  It  has  a  characteristic 
flavor  which  is  very  much  to  the  liking  of  cows. 

Economy  of  Storage. — The  silo  is  furthermore  ad- 
vantageous, in  that  by  its  use  we  are  able  to  store 
food  in  a  more  compact  form,  thus  economizing 
space.  A  little  more  than  twice  as  much  dry  matter 
can  be  stored  in  a  silo  as  would  be  found  in  the  same 
volume  of  hay  in  the  mow.  Were  we  to  attempt  to 
store  cured  stalks  in  the  barn,  there  would  be  re- 
quired fully  five  times  as  much  space  as  for  the 


62  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

same  weight  of  dry  matter  in  the  form  of  silage. 

Gathering  Corn  for  Silo  Uninterrupted  by  Rain. — 
In  harvesting  farm  crops  which  are  cured  in  the  usual 
way,  the  farmer  is  entirely  dependent  upon  weather 
conditions.  Not  only  do  rain-storms  cause  operations 
to  cease  for  the  time  being,  but  much  time  is  often  lost 
handling  the  crop  a  second  time.  In  filling  the  silo, 
whether  with  corn  or  any  of  the  hay  plants,  the  work 
may  proceed  during  light  showers  or  immediately  fol- 
lowing a  heavy  shower,  so  long  as  the  ground  is  not 
too  soft  for  hauling  through  the  field. 

Wheat  May  Follow  Corn. — Putting  corn  in  the 
silo  makes  it  possible  to  sow  wheat  in  the  same  field 
early  in  the  season,  if  desired,  with  no  inconven- 
ience caused  by  rows  of  shocks.  It  obviates  hauling 
in  winter  when  the  weather  is  bad,  and  is  especially 
convenient,  because  it  can  be  stored  near  where  it  is  to 
be  fed. 

The  silo  has  now  become  such  an  important  ad- 
junct to  farms  where  more  or  less  attention  is  given 
to  milk  production,  it  seems  wise  to  describe  some 
of  the  essentials  of  silo  construction  and  methods  of 
filling.  Bulletins  101  and  102  of  the  Illinois  Station 
are  so  timely  on  this  subject,  the  writer  has  Prof. 
Fraser's  permission  to  quote  them  freely. 

"There  are  several  points  that  must  be  closely  ob- 
served in  making  silage  if  it  is  to  be  well  preserved, 
and  the  neglect  of  any  one  of  these  will  make,  in  the 
final  result,  the  difference  between  success  and  failure. 
These  essentials  are  close  packing,  when  the  crop  is  at 
the  proper  stage  of  maturity,  in  an  air-tight  structure 
having  perfectly  rigid  walls.  Of  equal  if  not  greater 
importance,  is  the  proper  construction  of  the  silo.  If 
the  sides  of  the  silo  are  not  air-tight,  the  air  which 
passes  through  will  cause  the  silage  to  spoil,  and  if  the 
walls  are  not  perfectly  rigid,  the  pressure  of  the  silage 
will  cause  them  to  spring  out,  allowing  the  air  to 


WINTER  RATIONS  IN  THE  CORN  BELT.  63 

enter  between  the  silage  and  the  wall.    In  either  case 

the  result  will  be  the  same — decayed  silage. 

"The  outward  pressure  on  the  wall  of  a  silo  filled 
with  cut  corn  is  about  n  pounds  for  every  foot  in 
depth;  making  a  pressure  of  no  pounds  at  a  depth 
of  10  feet ;  330  pounds  at  a  depth  of  30  feet ;  and  the 
enormous  pressure  of  440  pounds  per  square  foot  at  a 
depth  of  forty  feet.  This  increase  in  pressure  as  the 
depth  increases  must  be  considered  in  silo  construction 
and  the  lower  portion  made  much  the  stronger. 

"Before  building  a  silo  the  most  careful  attention 
should  be  given  to  location,  size,  form,  and  method  of 
construction.  These  will  differ  somewhat  according 
to  locality  and  individual  needs.  A  brief  discussion  of 
these  questions  follows: 

"Location. — As  silage  contains  about  80  per  cent 
water  it  is  a  heavy  feed  to  handle  and,  to  avoid  unnec- 
essary labor  in  feeding,  the  silo  should  be  placed  as 
near  the  manger  as  possible,  preferably  at  one  end 
of  the  feeding  alley.  If  the  silo  is  inside  the  barn  the 
silage  chute  should  be  provided  with  a  door  which 
should  be  kept  closed  to  prevent  the  silage  odors  from 
entering  the  barn  at  milking  time,  thus  avoiding  the 
possibility  of  their  being  absorbed  by  the  milk. 

"Where  there  is  a  smooth,  level  floor  from  the  silo 
through  the  feeding  alley,  a  cart  will  prove  a  great  con- 
venience in  feeding.  When  built  outside  the  barn  the 
silo  should  be  within  a  few  feet  of  it  and  connected  by 
a  covered  passage.  If  it  is  necessary  to  fill  the  hay- 
loft from  the  end  of  the  barn  at  which  the  silo  is 
located,  a  movable  track  for  the  silage  car  can  be  ar- 
ranged to  extend  from  the  silo  to  the  barn. 

"Form  of  Silo. — Nearly  every  one  who  builds  a 
silo  adds  some  new  feature,  giving  rise  to  a  great  va- 
riety of  shapes  and  methods  of  construction.  Before 
building  a  silo  it  is  well  to  consider  both  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  the  different  styles  as  well  as  the 


64  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

cost  of  each.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however, 
that  no  silo  is  cheap,  no  matter  how  small  the  first 
cost,  if  it  does  not  preserve  the  silage  perfectly.  The 
first  silos  in  this  country  were  usually  built  inside  the 
barn  and  consequently  the  square  form  was  commonly 
used  in  order  to  utilize  the  space  more  completely.  The 
square  silo  has  not  proved  satisfactory,  however,  as  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  build  this  form  so  that  the 
side  walls  will  not  spring  out  and  allow  the  air  to  pass 
down  between  the  silage  and  the  wall,  which  invariably 
results  in  the  rotting  of  the  silage.  Another  difficulty 
with  the  square  form  is  that  the  silage  does  not  settle 
readily  in  the  corners  and  there  is  consequently  con- 
siderable loss  from  this  cause. 

"Proportion  and  Capacity  of  Silos. — To  obtain  sat- 
isfactory results,  silage  must  be  in  perfect  condition 
when  fed.  Since  fermentation  soon  takes  place  when 
silage  is  exposed  to  the  air,  the  silo  should  not  be  of  too 
great  diameter.  Not  more  than  eight  square  feet  of 
surface  should  be  allowed  for  each  cow  in  winter,  then, 
when  feeding  40  pounds  of  silage  per  cow,  a  layer  about 
1^/2  inches  deep  would  be  fed  off  daily.  When  silage  is 
fed  in  summer  it  is  advisable  that  the  exposed  area 
be  not  over  half  this  size  so  that  a  layer  three  inches 
deep  may  be  used  daily.  However  much  stock  is  to  be 
fed,  a  silo  20  to  22  feet  in  diameter  is  as  large  as 
should  be  built.  If  a  silo  is  of  greater  diameter  than 
this,  much  of  the  silage  is  at  too  great  distance  from 
the  door,  increasing  the  labor  of  removal. 

"The  deeper  the  silo  the  greater  the  pressure  and 
more  compactly  will  the  silage  be  pressed  together, 
hence  the  larger  the  amount  that  can  be  stored  per 
cubic  foot.  For  example,  a  silo  20  feet  in  diameter  and 
40  feet  deep  will  hold  twice  as  much  as  one  of  the 
same  diameter  and  25  feet  deep.  This  shows  the 
economy  of  reasonably  deep  silos.  To  be  well  propor- 
tioned the  height  should  not  be  more  than  twice  the 


WINTER  RATIONS  IN  THE  CORN  BELT.  65 

diameter.  No  silo  should  be  less  than  30  feet  deep 
and  to  get  sufficient  depth  for  a  silo  not  over  12  feet 
in  diameter,  it  may  be  placed  4  or  5  feet  into  the 
ground. 

"The  number  of  tons  of  silage  needed  can  readily 
be  estimated  from  the  size  of  the  herd  and  the  amount 
to  be  fed  daily.  Even  where  it  is  desired  to  feed  as 
much  silage  as  possible  not  more  than  40  pounds  per 
cow  should  be  fed  daily.  Each  cow  should  have  an 
allowance  then  of  200  times  40  pounds  whidi  is  8,000 
pounds  of  silage,  or  four  tons  per  cow  for  the  year. 
A  herd  of  ten  cows  will  require  a  silo  holding  40  tons ; 
a  herd  of  30  cows,  120  tons ;  50  cows,  200  tons ;  and 
100  cows,  400  tons.  Where  young  stock  is  raised  an 
allowance  should  be  made  for  them.  From  the  amount 
of  silage  needed  the  dimensions  of  a  silo  of  the  required 
capacity  may  be  determined  from  the  following 
table  showing  the  capacity  in  tons  of  silos  of  differ- 
ent diameters  and  depths.  These  estimates  apply  to 
silos  filled  with  well  matured  corn  that  has  been 
allowed  to  settle  forty-eight  hours  and  then  refilled. 
It  is  evident  that  to  get  this  rated  capacity  a  silo 
which  had  been  filled  rapidly  must  be  refilled  after 
settling  forty-eight  hours." 


PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 


r-HCOOQocOlOoTHCO«cr-HT)t 

CO  CC  CO  CO  ^  •*  ^  TH  10  10  10  10  CO  «D  CO  t- 


WINTER  RATIONS  IN  THE  CORN  BELT.  67 

A  good  crop  of  corn  will  yield  about  fifteen  tons 
of  silage  per  acre,  from  which  estimate  any  one  can 
determine  about  how  many  acres  of  corn  will  be  re- 
quired to  fill  a  silo  of  any  of  the  dimensions  given. 

Cost  of  Different  Forms  of  Silos. — Silos  as  con- 
structed vary  in  price  from  $1.00  per  ton  capacity  for 
the  stave  silo  to  $4.00  per  ton  for  stone  silos.  Owing 
to  their  low  cost,  stave  silos  are  being  used  extensively, 
though  many  object  to  them  because  the  hoops  often 
loosen  when  the  silo  is  empty  and  heavy  winds  some- 
times blow  them  down.  If  the  hoops  can  be  tightened 
each  year  and  the  silo  anchored  to  the  barn  or  other 
support,  it  will  give  good  satisfaction  for  several 
years.  A  stave  silo  made  of  good  material  and  well 
put  up  on  stone  or  concrete  foundation  will  cost  in 
the  neighborhood  of  $1.50  per  ton  capacity.  It  un- 
doubtedly pays  to  build  good  ones,  and  manufactur- 
ers can  usually  supply  them  ready  to  set  up  at  prices 
below  what  it  would  cost  the  farmer  to  build  them. 

Silos  are  also  built  of  ship  lap  material  curved  about 
vertical  studding,  both  inside  and  outside,  with  tarred 
paper  between  the  two  inside  layers.  A  wooden  silo 
lined  with  cement  is  favored  by  the  Illinois  Experi- 
ment Station  in  Bulletin  102,  which  gives  a  detailed 
description  of  silo  construction,  including  those  made 
of  stone  and  cement,  as  well  as  those  made  of  wood. 

"Corn  the  Best  Single  Crop  for  the  Silo. — Corn  not 
only  produces  a  large  quantity  of  nutritious  feed,  that 
is  easily  placed  in  the  silo,  but  it  is  of  such  a  nature  as 
to  pack  readily  and  keep  well.  The  large  southern  va- 
rieties of  ensilage  corn,  which  give  enormous  yields 
in  tons  per  acre,  have  been  recommended  for  silage ;  but 
such  varieties  do  not  produce  much  grain  and  the 
total  nutrients  are  usually  less  than  from  ordinary  field 
corn.  The  best  results  are  obtained  with  some  variety 
that  will  give  a  good  yield  of  grain,  and  by  planting 
somewhat  thicker  than  for  a  grain  crop.  Under  aver- 


68  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

age  conditions  a  larger  tonnage  of  feed  can  usually  be 
obtained  per  acre  by  combining  corn,  sorghum  and 
cowpeas  or  soy  beans,  but  even  with  this  combination 
the  greater  part  of  the  crop  should  be  corn.  When 
either  peas  or  beans  are  grown  with  the  corn  and  the 
entire  crop  is  put  into  the  silo,  the  feeding  value  is 
greater,  ton  for  ton,  than  that  of  corn  alone.  This  is 
a  much  more  economical  method  of  obtaining  protein 
than  by  purchasing  it  in  high  priced  concentrates,  as 
gluten  meal,  oil  meal,  etc. 

•"If  cowpeas  are  planted  at  the  same  time  as  the 
corn  and  in  the  rows  with  it,  they  will  usually  make 
a  fair  growth.  Since  the  vines  will  run  up  the  corn 
stalks,  the  entire  crop  can  be  cut  with  the  binder 
the  same  as  corn  alone,  making  practically  no  extra 
work  in  filling  the  silo.  The  only  difficulty  in 
harvesting  corn  and  cowpeas  with  the  corn  binder 
is  that,  if  the  corn  is  missing  for  a  rod  in  the 
row,  there  is  nothing  to  carry  the  peas  back  into  the 
binder,  and  it  is  likely  to  clog.  Where  there  is  a  fairly 
uniform  stand  of  corn,  all  can  be  readily  bound  to- 
gether. As  the  stalks  of  soy  beans  are  much  stiffer 
than  those  of  cowpeas,  no  difficulty  is  experienced  in 
cutting  them  with  the  corn." 


WINTER  RATIONS  IN  THE  CORN  BELT.  69 


Stave  Silo.  Round  Silo  Built  of  Shiplap. 


Corn  and  Cowpeas 


PROFITABLE   STOCK    FEEDING. 


"Increase  of  Nutrients  During  Maturity. — It  is  of 

great  importance  to  know  at  what  stage  corn  should  be 
cut  to  secure  the  best  results,  how  rapidly  nutriment  is 
stored  up  in  the  corn  plant  as  it  approaches  maturity, 
and  when  the  maximum  amount  is  reached.  The  fol- 
lowing table  illustrates  this  point : 

WATER  AND  DRY  MATTER  IN  CORN  CROP  AT  DIFFERENT  PERIODS 
AFTER  TASSELING.    NEW  YORK  (GENEVA)  STATION. 


Date  of 
cutting. 

Stage  of  growth. 

Corn  per 
acre. 

Water 
per  acre. 

1 

Ai 

July    30 

Fully  tasseled  

Tons 
9.0 

Tons 

8.2 

Tons 
.8 

Aug.      9 

Fully  silked  

12.9 

11  3 

1  6 

Aug.    21 
Sept.     7 

Kernels  watery  to  full  milk.  .  . 
Kernels  glazing  

16.3 
16.1 

14.0 
12.5 

2.3 
3.6 

Sept.  23 

Ripe    

14.2 

10.2 

4.0 

"In  the  last  column  is  shown  the  dry  matter  per 
acre  in  corn  at  different  stages.  When  the  corn  is 
fully  tasseled  it  contains  but  eight-tenths  of  a  ton  of 
dry  matter  per  acre,  or  only  one-fifth  what  it  contains 
when  fully  ripe.  When  in  the  milk  it  contains  nearly 
three  times  as  much  dry  matter  as  when  fully  tasseled. 
Only  seventeen  days  were  occupied  in  passing  from 
the  milk  to  the  glazing  stage,  yet  in  this  time  there  was 
an  increase  in  the  dry  matter  of  1.3  tons  per  acre.  This 
shows  the  great  advantage  of  letting  the  corn  stand 
until  the  kernels  are  glazed.  After  this  period  the 
increase  in  dry  matter  is  but  slight. 

"Time  to  Harvest. — To  have  the  silage  keep  well 
the  corn  must  be  cut  at  the  proper  stage  of  maturity. 
If  cut  before  it  is  sufficiently  matured,  too  much  acid 
develops.  If  too  ripe  it  does  not  settle  properly  and 
the  air  is  not  sufficiently  excluded  to  prevent  spoiling. 

"Corn  should  not  be  cut  until  the  ears  are  out  of  the 
milk  and  most  of  the  kernels  glazed  and  hard.  Ear 
No.  I  is  in  the  soft  dough  stage;  No.  2  is  beginning  to 


WINTER  RATIONS  IN  THE  CORN  BELT. 


?2          PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

dent ;  No.  3  is  nearly  all  dented,  but  a  few  kernels  are 
still  in  the  milk;  No.  4  shows  all  the  kernels  dented. 
When  corn  is  put  into  the  silo  it  should  usually  be  as 
ripe  as  ears  Nos.  3  and  4.  In  case  the  weather  has  been 
so  hot  and  dry  that  the  lower  leaves  have  fired,  the 
corn  should  be  cut  before  the  ears  are  quite  so  far  ad- 
vanced. Much  riper  corn  will  keep  at  the  bottom  of 
the  silo  than  at  the  top  because  of  the  greater  pressure 
which  excludes  the  air  more  completely.  It  is,  there- 
fore, important  that  the  ripest  corn  be  cut  first  and 
placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  silo. 

"Method  of  Harvesting. — The  corn  should  be  cut 
with  a  corn  binder,'  as  it  is  much  more  easily  handled 
when  bound  in  bundles.  If  the  silage  cutter  is  large  and 
the  work  is  pushed  with  a  good  force  of  men,  the  corn 
binder  should  have  a  start  of  half  a  day.  If  enough 
horses  are  used  on  the  binder  to  keep  it  moving  at  a 
good  pace  the  corn  can  usually  be  cut  down  as  fast 
as  it  can  be  put  into  the  silo. 

"It  is  always  wise  to  have  a  silage  cutter  of  large 
capacity,  as  much  less  labor  is  required  in  feeding  it, 
and  if  the  bundles  are  small  the  bands  need  not  be  cut. 
Using  a  small  cutter  with  a  large  engine  is  danger- 
ous unless  great  care  is  exercised  in  controlling  the 
power.  The  customary,  and  usually  the  most  satisfac- 
tory, way  of  elevating  the  cut  material  is  by  means  of 
the  blower.  To  obtain  the.  best  results  and  not  to  be 
annoyed  by  clogging,  the  blower  pipe  should  be  run 
as  nearly  perpendicular  as  possible. 

"Essentials  of  Silo  Filling. — If  silage  is  to  keep 
well  it  must  settle  evenly.  To  this  end  the  leaves  and 
the  heavier  parts  of  the  corn  must  be  kept  thoroughly 
mixed  and  evenly  distributed  in  the  silo.  Owing  to 
the  great  lateral  pressure  of  silage,  friction  with  the 
sides  of  the  silo  has  a  tendency  to  make  the  silage 
less  compact  at  the  edge,  and  for  this  reason  it 
should  be  kept  thoroughly  tramped  next  the  side. 


WINTER  RATIONS  IN  THE  CORN  BELT.  73 

Every  time  three  or  four  inches  of  cut  material  is 
added  to  the  silo  it  should  be  tramped  thoroughly 
around  the  edge,  taking  short  steps  and  packing  the 
silage  as  much  as  possible  next  the  wall.  These  pre- 
cautions must  be  observed  during  filling  to  obtain 
perfect  silage. 

"If  the  corn  is  so  ripe  that  none  having  green 
leaves  at  the  bottom  of  the  stalk  can  be  obtained  to 
finish  the  last  four  or  five  feet  at  the  top  of  the  silo, 
water  should  be  run  into  the  carrier  and  the  corn 
well  soaked.  If  the  corn  is  green,  only  enough  water 
need  be  used  to  soak  the  upper  six  inches  of  silage. 

"Many  different  forms  of  covering  for  silage  have 
been  advocated,  but  it  is  usually  found  most  practical  to 
finish  with  the  same  material  as  that  with  which  the 
silo  is  filled.  Frequently  a  saving  can  be  made  by 
snapping  off  the  ears  and  using  the  stalks  alone,  or 
by  running  enough  straw,  chaff,  or  weeds  through  the 
cutter  to  cover  the  silage  from  four  to  six  inches  deep. 
If  pressure  is  available,  water  can  be  run  into  the  car- 
rier to  saturate  this  material.  The  top  must  be  thor- 
oughly soaked  once  and  the  whole  surface  well  tramped 
every  day  for  a  week  to  exclude  the  air  as  much  as 
possible.  This  tramping  should  be  especially  well  done 
around  the  sides,  so  that  the  air  cannot  gain  access 
next  the  wall.  The  object  of  wetting  the  surface  is  to 
obtain  as  quickly  as  possible  a  thin  layer  of  thoroughly 
rotted  silage,  which  will  seal  the  top,  thus  excluding  the 
air  and  preserving  the  silage  below. 

"If  water  is  not  added  to  the  top,  the  heat  dries  out 
the  silage,  which  may  then  "fire  fang"  to  considerable 
depth,  entailing  a  great  loss." 

Cost  of  Filling  a  Silo. — At  the  Illinois  Experiment 
Station,  record  was  made  of  the  cost  of  filling-  nine- 
teen silos  in  the  state.  Labor,  twine,  wear  and  tear  on 
machinery,  etc.,  were  all  estimated  at  full  value.  "The 
cost  as  determined  ranged  from  forty  cents  to  seventy- 


74 


PROFITABLE    STOCK   FEEDING. 


six  cents  per  ton,  the  average  being  fifty-six  cents. 
This  variation  was  caused  by  the  distance  the  corn 
was  hauled  and  the  ability  of  some  farmers  to  ar- 
range the  work  more  systematically  and  push  it  with 
greater  energy  than  others."  By  including  the  annual 
interest  on  money  invested  in  the  silo  and  the  rental 
upon  the  land,  any  farmer  can  calculate  the  cost  of 
producing  silage,  which  will  range  from  $1.25  to  $2.00 
per  ton,  according  to  location. 

Silage  Fed  Liberally  vs.  Grain  Fed  Liberally 
Without  Silage. — The  Ohio  Experiment  Station  has 
recently  secured  data  to  show  the  relative  economy 
of  a  ration  consisting  of  more  silage  than  dairymen 
customarily  feed  and  a  ration  consisting  largely  of 
grain  with  corn  stover  and  mixed  hay  for  roughage. 
The  silage  used  consisted  of  a  mixture  of  the 
forage  plants,  soy  beans,  cowpeas  and  corn,  in  the 
proportion  respectively  1 :2  7^  by  weight.  The 
experiment  was  carried  on  for  a  period  of  six  months 
with  five  cows  in  each  of  two  lots.  The  average 
ration  actually  consumed  by  each  cow  by  lot  is 
shown  in  the  following  table,  in  which  the  data  are 
stated  in  terms  of  crude  nutrients  rather  than  di- 
gestible : 

I. — SILAGE    RATION. 


Lbs. 

Feed. 

Dry 

matter. 

1 

i| 

0<rt 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

1- 
*| 

Ll>s. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

58 

10.83 

1.369 

2.71 

5.43 

.531 

6.8 
2. 

Mixed  hay  .... 
Oil  meal  

5.77 

1.80 

0.550 
0.664 

1.90 
0.19 

2.761 
0.768 

.211 
.06 

2. 

Bran  

1.76 

0.308 

0.18 

1.078 

.08 

Total  

20716 

2.891 

4T9T 

110.037 

.882 

4  7 

I 

[.  —  GRAIN 

3.29 

r  RATION. 

0.211 

1.15 

1.70 

.063 

QA 
2  5 

Mixed  hay  

5.43 
2.25 

0.518 
0.83 

1.79 
0.237 

2.60 
0.96 

.198 
.075 

5. 
6. 

Corn  meal  

4.25 
5.29 

0.46 
0.924 

0.095 
0.54 

3.435 
3.234 

.19 
.24 

Total  . 

1Ol 

2.943 

3^812 

1  IT929 

7766 

WINTER  RATIONS  IN  THE  CORN  BELT.  75 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  cows  in  each  lot  con- 
sumed practically  the  same  amount  of  dry  matter  and 
crude  protein,  but  in  the  silage  ration  over  82  per  cent 
of  the  dry  matter  was  derived  from  roughage,  while  in 
the  "grain"  ration  less  than  43  per  cent  was  derived 
from  roughage. 

Each  hundred  pounds  o'f  dry  matter  produced  as 
follows : 

Ration.      .  Lbs.  milk.    Lbs.  fat. 

Silage 96.7  5.08 

Grain    81.3  3.90 

In  computing  the  cost  of  the  silage  the  experimenter 
says:  "The  value  placed  upon  a  ton  of  silage  is  based 
upon  that  of  the  corn  and  stover  grown  upon  similar 
ground  and  marketed  as  such.  For  instance,  upon 
ground  on  which  we  average  fifty  bushels  of  shelled 
corn  per  acre  we  grow  fifteen  tons  or  better  of  silage 
corn.  The  fifteen  tons  of  silage  corn  therefore  may  be 
said  to  be  worth  the  market  value  of  the  fifty  bushels 
of  corn,  plus  the  one  and  one-fourth  ton  of  stover 
which  will  go  with  it.  (We  find  the  expense  of  putting 
an  acre  of  corn  into  the  silo  to  be  practically  the  same 
as  shocking,  husking  and  cribbing  the  grain  and  haul- 
ing off  the  stover.)  We  have  here  charged  51  cents 
per  bushel  for  corn  on  the  average  for  the  period  cov- 
ered by  the  test  and  $4.00  per  ton  for  stover.  This  will 
make  the  acre  of  silage  corn  worth  $30.50,  or  $2.03  per 
ton/' 

Other  foods  were  valued  at  current  market  prices. 
The  schedule  of  prices  on  each  feed  and  product  was : 

Silage,  per  cwt $  0.10 

Hay,  per  cwt 50 

Stover,  per  cwt 20 

Wheat  bran,  per  cwt 93.7 

Corn  meal,  per  cwt 1.00 

Oil  meal,  per  cwt I.IG^ 

Butter,  per  pound 25% 

Skim  milk,  per  cwt 15 


76  PROFITABLE    STOCK  TEEDING. 

At  these  prices,  not  counting  the  cost  of  labor,  each 
hundred  pounds  of  milk  from  the  "silage"  ration 
costs  $0.687  and  from  the  "grain"  ration,  $1.055. 
Each  pound  of  butter  on  silage  costs  $0.131  and  on 
the  "grain"  ration,  $0.221. 

The  experiment  shows  (i)  that,  for  Ohio  condi- 
tions at  least,  the  dairyman  cannot  afford  to  make 
too  liberal  a  use  of  grain,  reducing  the  apportion- 
ment of  hay  correspondingly;  (2)  that  silage  can 
take  the  place  of  a  large  part  of  the  grain  ration 
ordinarily  fed,  with  much  greater  economy.  It  does 
not  show,  however,  that  such  a  heavy  feed  of  silage 
is  necessarily  more  economical  than  a  moderate  al- 
lowance, perhaps  thirty  or  forty  pounds  to  each  cow 
per  day. 

A  Profitable  Western  Ration. — In  consideration  of 
what  has  been  said  concerning  the  economy  of  the 
use  of  a  considerable  quantity  of  corn,  in  which  is 
mixed  a  little  bran  to  make  the  grain  ration  itself 
more  bulky,  with  alfalfa  to  furnish  most  of  the  pro- 
tein as  well  as  bulk,  and  corn  silage  for  succulent 
material,  we  have  in  the  following  a  wonderfully  effi- 
cient ration,  as  well  as  one  low  in  cost: 

Dry  Carbo-          Nutritive 

matter.  Protein,  hydrates.  Fat.    ratio. 

Corn  meal,  6  Ibs 5.34  .47         4.00         .25 

Wheat  bran,  2  Ibs 1.76  .24           .78         .05 

Alfalfa  hay,  10  Ibs.  . .     9.16  1.10         3.96        .12 

Corn  silage,  40  Ibs 8.36  .36        4.52        .28 

Total     24.62         2.17       13.26        .70         1:6.9 

Should  wheat  bran-  be  much  higher  per  ton  than 
corn,  it  would  be  more  profitable  to  use  six  pounds 
of  corn  and  cob  meal,  substituting  two  pounds  more 
of  alfalfa  for  the  two  pounds  of  bran.  By  using 
seven  pounds  of  corn  and  cob  meal  and  one  pound  of 
cottonseed  or  linseed  meal,  with  ten  pounds  of  alfalfa 
and  forty  pounds  of  silage,  we  have  another  excellent 
combination. 


WINTER  RATIONS  IN  THE  CORN  BELT  77 

Cowpea  hay,  as  shown  by  the  table  in  the  appen- 
dix, is  very  similar  to  alfalfa  in  composition  and 
practically  equal  to  it  in  feeding  value.  At  the 
Tennessee  Station  these  two  forage  plants  produced 
milk  equally  well,  but  the  cowpea  hay  was  said  to  be 
somewhat  cheaper.  It  is  a  plant  which  does  par- 
ticularly well  in  Southern  States;  in  fact,  as  far 
north  as  Central  Illinois.  Its  real  merit,  as  a  sup- 
plement to  corn  and  as  a  soil  renovator,  combined 
with  the  fact  that  it  is  comparatively  new  to  most 
farmers,  makes  it  seem  desirable  to  describe  briefly 
its  culture,  which  description  may  be  found  in  the 
appendix.  This  hay  plant  should  be  fed  in  the 
same  manner  as  alfalfa,  but  wherever  the  latter  can 
be  grown  well,  there  would  seem  to  be  no 
particular  advantage  in  growing  cowpeas  for  hay, 
extensively  at  least.  Cowpea  fodder  also  makes 
good  silage.  The  Maryland  Station  found  it  su- 
perior to  corn  silage. 

Soy  bean  hay  frequently  yields  as  high  as  three 
tons  per  acre  in  the  South,  where  it  is  receiving 
favorable  mention  as  a  fodder  plant.  It  is  somewhat 
coarse  in  stem,  though  palatable  and  a  rich  source 
of  protein.  Its  composition  is  similar  to  alfalfa 
and  cowpea  hay,  making  its  use  in  the  ration  the 
same.  It  has  been  tested  as  a  silage  plant  and  is 
highly  recommended.  The  New  Jersey  Station 
found  alfalfa  hay  and  soy  bean  silage  as  efficient 
as  commercial  foods  for  supplying  protein,  which 
seems  entirely  reasonable  in  view  of  its  composi- 
tion. 

Red  clover,  belonging  to  the  same  family  as 
alfalfa,  is  also  rich  in  protein  and  therefore  a  good 
fodder  to  supplement  corn.  To  be  most  useful  it 
should  be  cut  when  the  blossoms  begin  to  turn 
brown,  preferably  in  late  afternoon  or  early  morn- 
ing so  that  it  will  receive  the  sun's  rays  the  whole 


78  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

day.  It  should  be  raked  and  put  up  in  small  cocks 
before  the  dew  tails,  which  always  blackens  cured 
clover,  and  allowed  to  stand  while  it  undergoes  the 
sweating  process.  This  usually  requires  about  two 
days,  after  which  it  is  ready  to  go  in  the  mow  or 
stack.  Clover  cured  in  this  way,  if  it  has  not  been 
rained  upon,  will  come  out  in  the  winter  green  and 
crisp,  in  which  condition  it  is  much  more  palatable 
and  nutritious  than  hay  which  has  been  put  in  direct 
from  the  windrow.  On  small  farms,  more  particu- 
larly in  the  Eastern  States,  canvas  caps  are  used  to 
advantage  for  covering  haycocks,  and  no  doubt 
more  than  pay  for  themselves,  at  least  where  hay 
is  high  in  price. 

Clover  is  a  good  substitute  for  alfalfa,  though  its 
lower  protein  content  makes  it  necessary  to  use  a 
protein  concentrate,  such  as  linseed  meal,  when  corn 
stover  is  made  a  part  of  the  roughage.  The  digest- 
ible nutrients  in  a  ration  consisting  of  corn  and 

clover  alone  are  as  follows: 

Dry  Carbo-          Nutritive 

matter.    Protein,  hydrates.  Fat.     ratio. 

Corn,  10  Ibs 8.9  .79         6.67        .43 

Eed  clover,   20  Ibs.    ..  16.94         1.36         7.16        .34 

Total  25.85         2.15       13.83        .77         1:7.2 

W  oil's  suggested  stand- 
ard      25.6          2.2         13.3          .8          1:6.9 

It  is  apparent  that  this  combination  meets  re- 
quirements sufficiently  close. 

Were  we  to  utilize  the  stover  which  grew  with 
the  corn  fed,  our  ration  to  be  well  balanced  would 
be  as  follows : 

Dry  Carbo-          Nutritive 

matter.  Protein,  hydrates.  Fat.     ratio. 

Corn,  9  Ibs.    7.9          .71         6.0          .39 

Linseed  meal,  1%  Ibs.  . .     1.3  .44          .48         .10 

Corn  stover,  9  Ibs 5.3          .15         2.91         .06 

Clover,  13  Ibs 11.0          .88        4.65         .22 

Total    ,  .  25.5        2.18      14.04        .77        1:7.2 


WINTER  RATIONS  IN  THE  CORN  BELT.  79 

With  a  silo  the  clover  ration  may  be  made  still 
more  efficient  in  a  manner  something  like  this: 

Dry  Carbo-          Nutritive 
matter.  Protein,  hydrates.  Fat.      ratio. 

Corn  and  cob  meal,  7  Ibs,     6.23  .55  4.67  .30 
Cottonseed  meal, 

1%   Ibs 1.37  .55          .25  .18 

Clover,  10  Ibs 8.47  .68  3.58  .17 

Corn  silage,  40  Ibs 8.36  .36  4.52  .28 

Total    24.43        2.14       13.02        .93  1:7 

For  such  animals  as  dairy  cows,  which  are 
equipped  for  utilizing  a  large  quantity  of  roughage, 
it  is  much  more  profitable  to  grow  one  or  more 
of  these  four  legumes  than  to  purchase  extensively 
commercial  protein  foods.  Nor  should  the  effect 
of  such  crops  upon  the  soil  be  overlooked. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FEEDING    WITHOUT    THE    LEGUMES    FOR 
ROUGHAGE. 

With  none  of  the  legumes  (clover,  alfalfa,  cow- 
peas  and  soy  beans)  for  use  as  hay,  but  with 
an  abundance  of  other  roughage  on  hand,  all  forms 
of  which  are  non-nitrogenous  in  character,  the  pur- 
chase of  one  or  more  of  the  so-called  commercial 
protein  foods  is  made  necessary.  These  foods,  most 
of  them  by-products,  have  never  reached  a  price 
when  a  limited  quantity  could  not  be  used  with 
profit,  though  certain  ones  are  often  more  econom- 
ically used  than  others,  depending  upon  relative 
prices  at  the  time  and  place  wanted. 

These  protein  foods  for  cattle  feeding  may  be 
conveniently  divided  into  three  classes,  the  group 
to  which  each  belongs  depending  upon  protein  con- 
tent :  Class  i  contains  those  richest  in  protein,  and 
includes  cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal,  gluten  meal 
and  soy  bean  meal;  Class  2,  gluten  feed,  dried 
brewer's  grains,  malt  sprouts,  Canadian  field  peas 
and  cowpeas;  Class  3,  wheat  bran  and  shorts,  or 
middlings. 

Class  I.  Cottonseed  meal,  a  Southern  product, 
is  the  richest  protein  food  on  the  market  for  use 
as  a  cattle  food,  100  pounds  containing  37  pounds 
of  digestible  protein.  It  is  a  by-product  from  the 
manufacture  of  oil  from  cotton  seed.  After  the 
seeds  have  been  freed  from  fiber,  they  are  passed 
through  a  machine  which  removes  the  hulls.  The 
decorticated  seeds  are  then  cooked  and  while  still 
hot  subjected  to  hydraulic  pressure  which  removes 
the.  oil.  The  hard,  board-like  cake  remaining  is 


FEEDING  WITHOUT  LEGUMES  8l 

afterwards  broken,  finely  ground  and  sold  as  cot- 
tonseed meal.  One  ton  of  seed  will  yield  about  800 
pounds  of  cottonseed  meal,  which  should  be  of  a 
light  yellow  color,  with  a  clean,  nutty  odor.  If  it  is 
dark  in  color  it  is  of  inferior  quality,  either  be- 
cause of  the  presence  of  finely  ground  hulls,  or  be- 
cause of  fermentations.  The  Vermont  Experiment 
Station  suggests  the  following  test  by  which  any 
one  can  quickly  and  surely  tell  whether  it  is  good 
or  inferior:  "Place  a  teaspoonful  of  the  meal  (do 
not  use  more)  in  a  tumbler  and  pour  over  it  from 
an  ounce  and  a  half  to  two  ounces  of  hot  water. 
Stir  the  mass  till  it  is  thoroughly  wet  up  and  all 
the  particles  are  floating.  Allow  it  to  subside  for 
from  five  to  ten  seconds  and  pour  off.  If  a  large 
amount  of  fine,  dark  brown  sediment  has  settled 
in  this  time,  a  sediment  noticeably  heavier  than 
the  fine,  mustard-yellow  meal,  one  which  upon  re- 
peated treatments  with  boiling  hot  water  keeps 
settling  out,  the  goods  are  a  feed  meal — /.  e.,  meal 
containing  relatively  large  quantities  of  ground 
hulls.  All  meals  contain  small  quantities  of  hulls' 
and  show  dark  specks.  If,  however,  there  is  found 
a  large  amount  of  this  residue,  one  which  persists 
in  remaining  behind  after  several  washings  and 
decantings,  it  is  surely  composed  of  hulls  and  the 
goods  are  a  feed  meal.  The  results  of  this  test  are 
very  striking  when  a  feed  meal  is  compared  with  a 
meal  of  known  purity  which  is  similarly  tested  at 
the  same  time."  Some  feeders  have  experienced 
difficulty  in  securing  a  pure  meal,  on  account  of 
which  this  simple  test  is  of  great  practical  value. 
A  good  quality  of  the  meal  produces  excellent  re- 
sults when  fed  as  suggested  in  the  pages  follow- 
ing. 

Linseed  meal,  also   called  oil   meal  and  ground 
oil  cake,  is  similar  to  cottonseed   meal  in  feeding 


82  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

value,  being  if  anything  more  palatable  but  a  little 
less  rich  in  protein.  Linseed  meal  is  of  two  kinds, 
old  process  and  new  process.  Old  process  linseed 
meal  is  the  residue  left  after  extracting  linseed  oil 
from  flaxseed  by  means  of  hydraulic  pressure.  New 
process  is  made  by  extracting  the  oil  by  the  use  of 
a  chemical  solvent,  like  benzine.  The  new  method 
extracts  the  oil  more  perfectly,  on  account  of  which 
the  old  process  meal  contains  more  oil  but  a  little 
less  total  protein.  In  the  new  process,  however,  the 
ground  flaxseed  is  first  cooked,  so  that,  although  the 
meal  contains  more  total  protein,  the  cooking  has 
rendered  it  less  digestible,  giving  the  old  process 
meal  a  higher  percentage  of  digestible  protein.  This 
more  valuable  "old  process"  can  be  told  from  the 
new  by  placing  a  teaspoonful  of  each  in  separate 
glasses,  pouring  a  small  quantity  of  hot  water  on 
both  samples.  The  new  process,  having  once  jel- 
lied through  cooking,  remains  unchanged,  while 
the  old  process  forms  a  sticky  jelly-like  mass.  Lin- 
seed meal,  like  cottonseed  meal,  is  first  pressed 
into  cakes,  after  which  it  is  ground,  either  to  the 
condition  of  a  fine  meal  or  a  granuiar  substance 
in  which  the  particles  are  about  the  size  of  peas 
or  kernels  of  corn.  The  cake  in  its  original  form  is 
exported,  because  it  is  known  to  be  unadulterated 
in  that  form.  The  granular,  or  pea-size,  is  prefer- 
able to  the  fine  meal  for  the  same  reason.  It 
is,  furthermore,  more  satisfactory  for  outdoor  feed- 
ing, because  it  is  less  blown  by  the  wind.  Linseed 
meal  is  well  relished  and  serves  as  an  appetizer 
and  a  mild  laxative,  as  well  as  a  concentrated  source 
of  protein. 

Gluten  meal  is  a  residue  from  the  manufacture  of 
starch  and  glucose  from  corn.  The  process  con- 
sists in  first  separating  the  germ  and  hull  from  the 
starch  and  gluten,  after  which  the  gluten  is  sepa- 


FEEDING  WITHOUT  LEGUMES  83 

rated  from  the  starch  by  the  action  of  water.  The 
dried  meal  is  rich  in  protein  and  has  a  value  fully 
as  great  as  linseed  meal. 

Soy  bean  meal  differs  from  the  products  described 
in  that  it  is  the  entire  seed  of  the  soy  bean  plant 
ground.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  soy  beans  are 
the  only  farm  seeds  deserving  of  a  place  in  Class 
I,  on  account  of  their  exceptionally  high  protein  con- 
tent. They  are  also  rich  in  oil,  which  makes  it 
the  more  necessary  to  use  a  limited  quantity.  The 
soy  bean  is  a  very  promising  crop  in  the  more 
Southern  States,  yielding  from  ten  to  twenty  bush- 
els of  seed  per  acre,  worth  as  much  per  pound  as 
linseed  meal  for  feeding  purposes.  (See  Soy-bean 
culture  in  the  appendix.) 

Malt  Sprouts. — In  the  process  of  the  manufac- 
ture of  beer  from  the  barley  grain,  the  starch  is 
transformed  into  sugar  by  sprouting  the  seed,  the 
sugar  thus  formed  being  dissolved  out  by  water 
after  the  seeds  are  ground,  fermenting  later  to  form 
alcohol.  At  a  certain  stage  in  germination  the 
seeds  are  dried  and  the  sprouts  are  broken  off  and 
separated  from  the  grain,  after  which  they  are 
sacked  and  placed  on  the  market  for  feeding  pur- 
poses. Malt  sprouts,  relatively  higher  in  protein 
than  are  other  foods  of  Class  II,  are  fed  to  dairy 
cows  with  profit  in  localities  where  beer  making 
is  an  important  industry. 

Dried  brewers'  grains  constitute  that  portion  of 
the  barley  grain  which  is  left  after  the  starch  is 
converted  into  sugar  and  removed  from  the  seed. 
Brewers'  grains  are  sometimes  sold  to  the  local 
trade  in  the  wet  form,  which  is  valuable  only  for 
immediate  use,  as  the  material  does  not  keep.  Dried 
brewers'  grains  are  very  commonly  fed  to  dairy 
cows  in  Eastern  States. 

Class  II.     Cowpeas  are  less  rich  in  protein  than 


84  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

are  soy  beans,  which  logically  puts  them  in  Class 
II  of  the  protein  foods.  The  cowpea  plant,  cut  be- 
fore the  seeds  ripen,  is  so  valuable  for  hay  that  it  is 
used  largely  for  this  purpose.  Where  the  seeds  are 
allowed  to  ripen  and  are  threshed,  they  may  be 
ground  into  a  meal  and  used  very  advantageously 
as  a  protein  supplement  to  corn. 

Canadian  peas  are  nearly  as  rich  in  protein,  and 
are  sometimes  grown  in  the  North  for  feeding  as 
a  grain,  as  well  as  for  use  as  a  forage.  For  all 
classes  of  stock,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
sheep,  they  should  be  ground  before  being  fed. 

Gluten  feed  is  another  by-product  from  the  manu- 
facture of  starch  and  glucose  from  corn.  It  differs 
from  gluten  meal  in  that  it  contains  the  hull  and 
germ  as  well  as  gluten,  giving  it  a  lower  percent- 
age of  protein  and  a  higher  percentage  of  crude 
fiber. 

Class  III.  The  annual  yield  of  wheat  in  the 
United  States  has  averaged  during  the  years  1900- 
1905  about  650,000,000  bushels,  of  which  nearly 
500,000,000  are  annually  ground  for  flour  within 
our  borders.  When  it  is  understood  that  not  less 
t'han  one-fourth  of  this  wheat  is  milled  out  as  offal, 
producing  from  3,500,000  to  4,000,000  tons  of  bran 
and  shorts  each  year,  the  extensive  use  of  such  ma- 
terial for  feeding  purposes  can  be  more  easily  com- 
prehended. The  wheat  grain  consists  of  a  mass  of 
starch  cells  mingled  with  gluten,  a  germ  near  the 
base  within,  and  a  layer  of  gluten  cells  around  the 
outside,  the  whole  being  surrounded  by  a  tough, 
woody  coating  made  up  of  three  distinct  layers. 
Bessey  is  authority  for  the  statement  that  "The 
coatings  constitute  5  per  cent  of  the  seed,  the  gluten 
layer  3  to  4  per  cent,  the  germ  6  per  cent,  and  the 
starch  cells  84  to  86  per  cent." 

Wheat  bran  is  the  coarse  outer  part,  or  skin,  of  the 


FEEDING  WITHOUT  LEGUMES  85 

kernel,  to  which  cling  more  or  less  gluten  material 
and  starch  cells,  when  the  product  is  removed  in 
milling.  A  large  part  of  the  mineral  matter  of  the 
wheat  kernel  is  at  the  outside  of  the  kernel,  and 
consequently  appears  in  the  bran.  This,  with  the 
gluten,  makes  the  product  a  good  bone  making 
food.  The  large  percentage  of  crude  fiber  gives 
bulk,  making  bran  desirable  to  feed  in  con- 
nection with  concentrated  material  like  corn-meal, 
to  which  it  also  adds  protein  and  mineral  matter — 
in  both  of  which  corn  is  deficient.  Bran  is  also 
something  of  an  aid  to  digestion,  inasmuch  as  it 
contains  more  or  less  of  a  ferment,  called  "diastase," 
wnich  is  found  about  the  germ,  and  which  promotes 
the  change  from  starch  to  sugar,  in  digestion  as  well 
as  m  seed  germination.  Bran,  like  linseed  meal,  is 
a  mild  laxative,  which  makes  it  useful  immediately 
following  parturition,  when  the  dam  is  feverish  and 
usually  constipated.  Its  use  for  such  purposes 
makes  bran  more  valuable  than  its  composition 
would  indicate. 

Wheat  shorts,  or  middlings,  consist  largely  of 
the  row  of  gluten  cells,  that  part  of  the  kernel  be- 
tween the  starch  cells  and  outer  coatings.  It  con- 
tains more  starchy  matter  and  less  crude  fiber  than 
bran,  making  it  more  concentrated,  though  no 
richer  in  protein  and  even  less  rich  in  mineral  mat- 
ter. Shorts  are  more  suitable  for  animals  of  lim- 
ited digestive  capacity,  as  swine,  but  less  valuable 
for  diluting  corn-meal  for  cattle.  Wheat  middlings 
is  the  name  formerly  applied  to  what  is  now  sold  as 
shorts,  though  in  Eastern  States  the  name  middlings 
is  still  in  common  usage.  When  flour  was  made  by 
the  old  burrstone  process  there  were  but  three 
parts:  flour,  middlings  and  bran.  With  improved 
methods  a  large  number  of  grades,  from  the  finest 
patent  flour  down  to  bran,  are  made.  At  the  pres- 


86  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

ent  time  millers  apply  the  term  middlings  to  that 
part  of  the  kernel  from  which  both  the  finest  flours 
and  coarser  bran  have  been  removed — material  fur- 
ther used  for  the  manufacture  of  the  coarser  grades 
of  flour,  with  which,  therefore,  the  feeder  is  not 
concerned. 

The  relative  value  of  the  three  classes  of  protein 
foods  is  most  conveniently  stated  in  terms  of  protein 
content.  Those  in  Class  I  contain  from  28  to  35 
per  cent  digestible  protein ;  those  in  Class  II,  from 
17  to  20  per  cent,  and  those  in  Class  III,  from  12  to 
13  per  cent.  The  relation  of  the  three  classes  in 
terms  of  protein  may  be  given  as  30,  18,  12.  Accord- 
ingly, there  would  be  required  a  percentage  of  the 
wheat  by-product  in  the  ration  one  and  a  half  times 
the  percentage  of  foods  in  Class  II  and  two  and  a 
half  times  the  percentage  of  those  constituting  Class 
I.  In  other  words,  if  oil  meal,  for  example,  is  used 
as  10  per  cent  of  the  ration,  one  of  those  in  Class  II 
should  constitute  17  per  cent,  and  bran  or  shorts 
25  per  cent.  The  proportion  30,  18,  12  should  also 
be  a  fairly  good  estimate  of  relative  values.  Were 
any  further  distinction  to  be  made,  it  would  be  to 
give  cottonseed  meal  a  valuation  more  nearly  to 
correspond  with  its  higher  protein  content,  about 
36,  though  it  will  average  in  quality  lower  than 
that  figure  represents. 

Rations  Without  the  Legume  Hay  Plants. — With 
only  cornstalks  for  roughage,  a  ration  to  be  well 
balanced  should  be  something  as  follows: 

Dry  Carbo-          Nutritive 

matter.  Protein,  hydrates.  Fat.      ratio. 

Corn,  9  Ibs 8.02          .71         6.00        .39 

Cottonseed  meal  3  Ibs.         2.75         1.12          .50        .36 
Corn  stover,  23  Ibs.   ..  13.68  .39         7'.45        .16 

Total 24.45         2.22       13.95        .91         1:7.2 

If  the  corn  is  cut  just  as  soon  as  the  ears  are 


FEEDING  WITHOUT  LEGUMES  87 

ripe  and  the  stalks  are  well  cured  in  the  shock,  such 
a  ration  will  give  good  results  at  a  low  cost. 

Sorghum  (sugar-cane)  is  often  grown  for  fod- 
der, particularly  in  regions  where  rains  are  less 
abundant  and  corn  is  less  likely  to  succeed.  Sor- 
ghum yields  well,  and  if  the  seed  is  drilled  rather 
'thickly  the  stems  grow  small,  making  the  forage 
better  relished  and  more  easily  masticated.  Sor- 
ghum hay  is  so  similar  to  corn  stover  in  composi- 
tion, the  difference  being  due  to  the  presence  of 
more  sugar  and  less  starch  in  sorghum,  that  the 
two  should  be  supplemented  in  the  same  way. 

Timothy  hay  is  nearly  as  deficient  in  protein  as 
are  the  two  fodders  just  described.  Timothy  is  in 
such  demand  for  horse  feeding  that  its  market  price 
is  much  above  its  real  worth  for  all  other  classes  of 
stock.  Should  it  be  the  only  roughage  at  the  feed- 
er's disposal,  it  could  be  fed  with  cottonseed  meal 
as  follows: 

Dry  Carbo-          Nutritive 

matter.  Protein,  hydrates.  Fat.      ratio. 

Corn,  8  Ibs 7.13  .63         5.33         .34 

Cottonseed  meal,  3  Ibs...     2.75         1.12  .50         .36 

Timothy,  18  Ibs 15.61  .50         7.81         .25 

Total    24.49         2.25       13.64         .95  1:7 

Prairie  hay,  which  grows  so  abundantly  on  the 
Western  plains,  is  similar  to  timothy  in  composi- 
tion, though  it  usually  consists  of  so  many  varieties 
of  grasses  that  its  analysis  in  one  section  is  inap- 
plicable to  another.  The  Minnesota  Station  found 
timothy  and  prairie  hay  practically  equal  for  pro- 
ducing milk.  This  should  be  fed  as  has  been  sug- 
gested for  timothy. 

Millet  hay  (Hungarian  grass)  is  not  in  high  favor 
as  a  forage  plant,  though  it  yields  well  and  pro- 
duces a  crop  quickly.  Millet  often  causes  scours, 
especially  when  cut  too  green,  which  makes  it  some- 


88          PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

what  objectionable.  On  the  other  hand,  if  allowed 
to  ripen,  the  fodder  is  less  valuable  and  the  small, 
hard  seeds  are  irritating  to  the  digestive  tract.  It 
should  be  supplemented  in  the  same  manner  as 
timothy  hay,  though  much  better  results  are  se- 
cured by  using  millet  as  half  the  roughage. 

Oat  straw  is  an  inexpensive  material  on  most 
farms,  where  it  is  often  used  for  bedding  purposes. 
By  referring  to  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  oat 
straw  has  less  protein  than  the  foods  described,  on 
account  of  which  about  one-third  more  protein  food 
should  be  used.  Any  straw  contains  a  large  quan- 
tity of  crude  fiber,  mostly  indigestible,  which  ex- 
plains why  less  of  .such  roughness  will  be  consumed, 
making  a  larger  use  of  grain  necessary.  Oat  straw 
is  another  food  more  successfully  utilized  in  con- 
nection with  some  other  roughage. 

Wheat  and  rye  straw  contain  still  less  protein  and 
more  crude  fiber  than  is  found  in  oat  straw.  In 
fact,  they  contain  so  much  inert  matter,  and  so  much 
energy  is  expended  in  extracting  the  little  nutri- 
ment contained,  that  the  economy  of  forcing  such 
material  upon  any  class  of  animals,  at  least  in  quan- 
tity, is  questionable.  With  no  other  forms  of  rough- 
age, they  will  serve  as  "fillers,"  as  all  ruminants  re- 
quire some  bulk.  Straw  is  an  excellent  absorbent 
and  extremely  useful  for  bedding,  for  which  pur- 
pose it  often  yields  more  revenue  than  for  use  as 
a  food. 

Variety  in  the  roughage  fed  is  as  much  appre- 
ciated as  variety  in  the  grain  ration.  When  possi- 
ble two  or  more  kinds  should  be  supplied.  If  hay 
from  any  one  of  the  legumes,  alfalfa,  clover,  cow- 
peas  or  soy  beans,  is  fed  as  half  the  roughage,  it 
would  be  more  profitable  to  reduce  the  amount  of 
cottonseed  meal  or  other  commercial  protein  foods 


FEEDING  WITHOUT  LEGUMES  &) 

to  one-half  of  that  recommended  for  stover,  timothy 
or  the  other  fodder  plants  of  that  class. 

Roughage  Need  Not  Be  Weighed. — The  rations, 
as  outlined  in  the  preceding  pages,  show  something 
of  how  the  foods  should  be  put  together  to  furnish 
the  nutrients,  together  with  the  bulk  desirable,  for 
a  dairy  cow  weighing  1,000  pounds.  If  a  cow  is 
lighter  or  heavier,  the  ration  should  be  varied  ac- 
cordingly. It  is  not  the  thought  of  the  writer  that 
the  roughage  be  weighed,  as  this  would  involve  too 
much  labor.  By  weighing  a  measure  full  of  grain 
it  is  possible  to  regulate  the  amount  at  each  feed 
with  but  little  inconvenience.  The  average  cow,  if 
fed  the  weight  of  grain  recommended,  will  consume 
approximately  the  amount  of  hay  or  other  roughage 
stated,  providing  she  has  before  her  all  her  appetite 
craves — such  an  allowance  as  will  be  cleaned  up 
each  day  with  no  waste  except  coarse  stems,  which 
have  little  nutritive  value  and  are  only  serviceable 
for  bedding. 

Beet  Pulp. — The  sugar  beet  industry  has  attained 
such  proportions  in  certain  sections  of  the  United 
States  that  the  pulp,  a  residual  product  from  the 
manufacture  of  sugar  from  the  beet,  has  come  under 
consideration  relative  to  a  possible  feeding  value 
it  may  possess.  Pulp  has  no  commercial  value 
aside  from  its  use  as  a  stock  food,  which  makes  it 
all  the  more  necessary  to  give  it  a  careful  trial  for 
feeding  purposes.  In  the  process  of  sugar  manu- 
facture the  beets  are  crushed,  saturated  with  water 
and  chemically  treated.  The  pulp  is  simply  the 
crushed  beet  minus  the  sugar  it  originally  contained, 
plus  water.  One  hundred  pounds  of  pulp  has  ap- 
proximately ten  pounds  of  dry  matter.  It  is,  there- 
fore, extremely  watery  and  quickly  fermentable, 
which  makes  it  a  product  most  suitable  for  feeding 
in  close  proximity  to  the  sugar  factories,  rather  than 


QO  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

to  pay  heavy  freight  charges  for  its  transportation ; 
and,  furthermore,  it  should  be  fed  out  quickly  rather 
than  stored  for  any  length  of  time,  unless  the  silo  is 
used.  While  beet  pulp  contains  but  little  dry  mat- 
ter, making  it  low  in  nutritive  value,  when  fed 
with  grain  and  dry  fodder,  it  has,  like  corn  silage 
and  roots,  a  physiological  effect  upon  the  system 
which  is  beneficial.  This  makes  it  somewhat  more 
valuable  than  its  composition  would  indicate — 
especially  for  milch  cows. 

The  Cornell  (New  York)  Station  found  that  the 
dry  matter  of  beet  pulp  is  equivalent  to  the  dry 
matter  of  corn  silage,  which  makes  two  tons  of 
average  pulp  equal  to  one  ton  of  corn  silage,  ap- 
proximately, for  feeding  purposes.  At  the  Colorado 
Station  it  was  also  found  that  two  tons  of  pulp  are 
the  equivalent  of  one  ton  of  the  beets.  These  two 
tests  confirm  the  Nebraska  test,  which  showed 
sugar  beets  to  be  practically  equivalent  to  corn 
silage,  pound  for  pound,  for  dairy  cows. 

The  Colorado  Station  advocates  fifty  pounds  as 
a  maximum  daily  feed  of  pulp.  In  their  tests, 
twenty-four  pounds  were  fed  per  day  in  connection 
with  twenty  pounds  of  alfalfa,  four  pounds  of  corn 
chop  and  four  pounds  of  wheat  chop.  Beets  were 
fed  in  the  same  way  in  half  the  quantity.  In  the 
New  York  test  each  cow  ate  from  fifty  to  one  hun- 
dred pounds  of  pulp  per  day,  according  to  size,  in 
addition  to  eight  pounds  of  grain  and  six  to  twelve 
pounds  of  hay. 

Dried  molasses  beet  pulp  is  a  new  product  given 
considerable  prominence  by  sugar  companies.  The 
Vermont  Station  found  it  equivalent  to  the  dry  mat- 
ter of  corn  silage  and  as  efficient  as  bran,  though 
the  two  are  hardly  comparable  because  the  dried 
pulp  is  not  a  protein  food.  Its  preparation  is  de- 
scribed as  follows: 


FEEDING  WITHOUT  LEGUMES  gi 

"The  beets  are  thoroughly  washed,  then  shredded 
and  placed  in  large  cylinders.  Pure  water  is  ad- 
mitted and  the  sugar  soaked  out  by  the  diffusion 
process.  This  liquor  is  drawn  off  and  the  pulp, 
containing  92  per  cent  moisture  and  one-quarter 
per  cent  sugar,  is  conveyed  at  once  to  the  drier, 
where  it  is  first  run  through  presses  reducing  the 
moisture  to  82  per  cent.  Residuum  molasses  from 
the  sugar  factory  containing  50  per  cent  sugar  is 
next  mixed  with  the  pressed  pulp.  This  mixture  is 
then  put  into  the  kilns,  where  it  is  thoroughly  dried 
by  direct  heat.  The  drying  process  lasts  35  min- 
utes. Immediately  upon  coming  from  the  kilns  the 
pulp  is  sacked  and  is  ready  for  shipment.  The  dry- 
ing follows  the  use  of  the  water  so  quickly  that 
there  is  no  opportunity  for  fermentation.  One  hour 
from  the  time  the  sugar  is  extracted  from  the  beets 
the  dried  molasses  beet  pulp  is  in  sacks  ready  for 
use. 

"Dried  beet  pulp,  whether  molasses  is  added  to  it 
or  not,  is  hardly  in  the  same  class  as  other  concen- 
trates. Its  origin  and  method  of  manufacture  are 
so  unlike  them  that  we  may  expect  to  find  its 
chemical  composition  and  adaptations  unusual. 
Such  is  found  to  be  the  case.  Its  protein  content 
is  lower  than  that  of  any  ordinary  concentrate  ex- 
cept corn-meal;  its  nitrogen-free  extract  and  ether 
extract  contents  are  low  and  their  composition  rela- 
tively poor  and  lacking  in  true  starch  and  fat;  and 
its  crude  fiber  percentage  is  high.  It  cannot  serve 
to  narrow  a  ration,  since  its  nutritive  ratio  is  wide. 
Theoretically  it  would  seem  better  adapted  to  fat- 
tening than  to  milk  making ;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact 
it  was  found  satisfactory  in  these  trials." 

Beet  leaves  are  produced  in  abundance  on  land 
devoted  to  the  culture  of  sugar  beets.  In  actual 
value  leaves  are  better  than  straw,  but  less  valuable 


THE 


92  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

than  hay.  The  presence  of  oxalic  acid  makes  it  ad- 
visable to  feed  beet  leaves  moderately. 

Roots  are  very  commonly  used  in  European  coun- 
tries for  all  classes  of  stock.  In  the  United  States 
their  growth  is  more  largely  confined  to  small  farms 
in  Eastern  States,  where  land  is  comparatively  high 
in  price.  A  large  tonnage  of  roots  can  be  grown  on 
a  limited  area,  though  in  actual  pounds  of  dry  mat- 
ter produced  they  are  not  ahead  of  some  of  our 
forage  crops.  It  is  their  watery,  succulent  character 
which  makes  roots  especially  adapted  for  milk  pro- 
duction. In  the  corn  belt,  however,  silage  can  be 
produced  at  half  the  cost,  and,  as  shown  by  experi- 
ments, the  silage  is  equal  to  roots,  pound  for  pound, 
making  root  growing  less  practical.  Of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  roots,  mangel  wurzels  are  most  in 
favor,  because  they  yield  heavily  and  are  at  the 
same  time  well  relished. 

Cabbages  are  also  grown  for  cows,  and  they  are 
relished  extremely  well,  even  more  so  than  roots. 
By  proper  methods  of  culture  they  can  also  be  made 
to  yield  well,  often  requiring  less  labor  than  is  re- 
quired for  root  growing.  Without  the  silo  for  corn, 
at  least  some  roots  or  cabbages  should  be  grown 
for  the  dairy  herd. 

Corn  Substitutes. — On  many  farms  cereals  other 
than  corn  are  often  grown  for  feeding  purposes, 
either  because  they  fit  well  in  the  crop  rotation,  or 
because  the  farmer  feels  it  something  of  a  risk  to 
depend  entirely  upon  corn  for  fattening  purposes. 
In  the  Northern  States  especially,  the  dangers  from 
killing  frosts  in  the  fall  would  seem  to  warrant  the 
growth  of  at  least  a  small  acreage  of  barley  or  some 
other  corn  substitute.  In  the  semiarid  regions  cer- 
tain other  crops  yield  better  and  are  more  to  be 
relied  upon  than  corn.  In  feeding-  any  of  these  so- 
called  substitutes,  either  alone  or  mixed,  protein 


FEEDING  WITHOUT  LEGUMES  93 

foods  should  be  used  to  supplement  them,  as  has 
been  recommended  for  corn,  with  exceptions  as 
stated  below. 

Barley  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  corn  where 
the  latter  cannot  be  successfully  grown  because  of 
unfavorable  climatic  conditions.  Barley  contains  a 
little  more  protein  than  does  corn,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  has  more  crude  fiber  and  is  somewhat  less 
palatable.  In  tests  that  have  been  made  the  two 
were  found  to  be  practically  equal  in  value,  and  one 
may  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  other.  It  is 
more  necessary  to  grind  barley,  because  of  its 
smaller  size  and  hardness. 

Emmer  (speltz)  is  similar  to  barley  in  composi- 
tion, though  it  contains  more  fiber.  At  the  South 
Dakota  Station  barley  proved  to  be  13  per  cent 
more  valuable  than  speltz  for  milk  production. 
Farmers  in  the  semiarid  sections  can  grow  speltz 
more  successfully  than  barley,  much  more  so  than 
corn,  and  where  they  have  fed  it  to  dairy  cows  good 
results  have  been  secured.  Owing  to  its  bulk,  it 
would  seem  better  adapted  for  cows  than  any  other 
class  of  animals. 

Wheat  is  occasionally  so  low  in  price  as  to  make 
its  use  for  stock  feeding  practicable.  It  should  be 
ground  and  mixed  with  bran  or  some  other  food 
to  make  it  less  sticky,  under  which  circumstances 
it  is  equal  to  corn.  Wheat  is  somewhat  richer  in 
protein  than  corn,  requiring,  therefore,  a  little  less 
of  this  nutrient  from  other  sources. 

Rye  should  also  be  ground  and  fed  as  suggested 
for  wheat,  though  it  seems  to  be  from  5  to  10  per 
cent  less  valuable,  which  must  be  due  to  its  unpalat- 
ability,  as  the  two  grains  are  similar  in  composi- 
tion. 

Kafir  corn  and  sorghum  seed  are  semiarid 
products,  and  both  are  very  commonly  fed  to  stock. 


94         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

The  seeds  are  so  small  and  hard  that  grinding  is 
also  necessary  with  them,  more  necessary,  in  fact, 
than  with  wheat  or  barley.  Neither  Kafir  corn  nor 
cane  seed  is  so  well  relished  as  corn  by  dairy  cows, 
which,  no  doubt,  partly  accounts  for  a  slightly 
lower  feeding  value. 

Oats  are  well  relished  and  contain  more  protein 
than  the  other  foods  described.  They  are  excellent 
regulators,  because  of  their  bulk  and  the  fact  that 
they  are  easily  digested.  Whenever  the  market 
price  of  oats  is  no  higher  than  corn  per  hundred 
weight,  they  should  be  fed.  Even  at  a  slightly 
higher  price,  they  can  be  used  economically  in  a 
limited  way  to  furnish  variety,  and  with  corn-meal 
they  add  bulk,  which  is  advantageous. 

Condimental  Stock  Foods. — During  recent  years 
numerous  establishments  for  the  manufacture  of  so- 
called  stock  foods  have  sprung  up  in  various 
parts  of  the  country.  The  enterprise  and  aggres- 
siveness displayed  by  these  concerns  in  advertis- 
ing their  goods  have  been  such  as  to  arouse  con- 
siderable interest  among  farmers  as  to  the  validity 
of  the  claims  made  for  such  products.  The  claims 
made  are:  first,  that  they  are  appetizers,  promot- 
ing digestion ;  and,  secondly,  that  they  have  medici- 
nal properties  beneficial  in  effect.  Several  experi- 
ment stations  have  been  investigating  these  claims, 
among  them  Massachusetts,  which  reports  as  fol- 
lows concerning  the  ingredients  used:  "The  sub- 
stances generally  employed  as  a  basis  for  the  stock 
foods  were  the  cereals — corn  and  wheat  offal  es- 
pecially— linseed  meal,  beans  and  rice.  The  poul- 
try foods  were  composed  of  similar  substances,  to- 
gether with  oyster  shells  and  meat  and  bone  meal. 
Among  the  remaining  ingredients,  added  ostensibly 
for  medicinal  effect,  are  numbered  many  of  the  old- 
time  remedies,  such  as  common  salt,  charcoal,  black 


FEEDING  WITHOUT  LEGUMES  95 

pepper,  cayenne,  fenugreek,  sulfur,  Glauber  and  Ep- 
som salts,  and  occasionally  fennel,  ginger,  tumeric 
and  sulfate  of  iron.  Fenugreek  was  a  favorite  In 
the  stock  mixtures  and  pepper  in  the  poultry  foods. 
Venetian  red  (oxide  of  iron)  was  often  used  simply 
to  color  and  disguise  the  character  of  the  other 
constituents.  Finely  ground  charcoal  acted  in  a 
similar  manner.  In  several  instances  noticeable 
quantities  of  sand  were  found,  but  whether  to  in- 
crease the  weight  or  as  an  accidental  admixture  is 
difficult  to  say." 

Dr.  James  B.  Paige  in  Bulletin  71  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Station  says:  "Contrary  to  the  popular 
belief,  animals  in  a  state  of  health,  under  favorable 
conditions  as  regards  food  and  stabling,  do  not 
need  condition  powders  or  tonic  foods.  There  is 
in  the  body  of  such  an  animal  a  condition  of  equi- 
librium of  all  body  functions.  The  processes  of 
nutrition,  digestion  and  assimilation  are  at  their 
best.  All  that  is  required  to  maintain  this  condi- 
tion of  balance  is  that  the  animal  be  kept  under 
sanitary  conditions  and  receive  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  healthful,  nutritious  food  and  pure  water.  It 
may  be  possible  by  the  use  of  such  substances  to 
improve  the  appetite  so  that  an  animal  will  ingest 
and  possibly  digest  more  food,  but  should  the  in- 
creased quantity  of  nutrient  constituents  elaborated 
not  be  appropriated  by  the  tissues  of  the  body,  harm 
may  result  from  the  overloading  of  the  lymphatic 
system  or  from  an  increased  activity  of  the  ex- 
cretory organs.  In  the  case  of  sick  animals  there 
are  abnormal  conditions  to  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion, such  as  loss  of  appetite,  weakened  digestion, 
poor  circulation  and  malnutrition.  Until  every  or- 
gan performs  its  normal  function  a  state  of  health 
does  not,  cannot  exist.  If  by  the  administration  of 
a  tonic,  stimulant  or  an  alterative  it  is  possible  to 
restore  to  a  normal  condition  any  organ  so  that 


96         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

it  can  perform  its  function,  then  every  organ  in 
the  body  is  benefited." 

Station  Tests  with  Stock  Foods.— Hills  of  the 
Vermont  Station  fed  Nutriotone  to  cows  and  re- 
ports as  follows :  "The  material  does  not  appear  to 
have  increased  productiveness  in  this  particular  ex- 
periment." Bartlett  of  Maine  says,  "In  neither  of 
these  cases  did  Nutriotone  have  any  effect,  either 
favorable  or  otherwise."  Sir  John  Bennett  Lawes, 
the  late  well-known  IJnglish  investigator,  after  ex- 
amining the  merits  of  condimental  stock  foods,  said : 
"In  conclusion  I  feel  bound  to  say  that  I  should 
require  much  clearer  evidence  than  any  that  has 
hitherto  been  adduced  to  satisfy  me  that  the  bal- 
ance-sheet of  my  farm  would  present  a  more  satis- 
factory result  at  the  end  of  the  year  were  I  to  give 
each  horse,  ox,  sheep  and  pig  a  daily  allowance  of 
one  of  these  costly  foods." 

After  feeding  condimental  stock  foods  to  dairy 
cows  at  the  Kansas  Station,  the  experimenter  con- 
cludes that  they  "are  worthless  for  dairy  cows  ac- 
customed to  a  good  balanced  ration." 

The  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station  in  making  a 
summary  of  all  feeding  experiments  with  condi- 
mental foods  says,  "In  thirteen  of  sixteen  experi- 
ments the  addition  of  condimental  foods  either  had 
no  effect  at  all  or  was  actually  a  detriment  to  the 
ration,  while  in  three  experiments  they  had  a  slight- 
ly favorable  effect,  but  in  each  case  the  yield  was 
accompanied  by  a  greatly  increased  cost  of  the 
product." 

These  are  facts  concerning  stock  foods  as  they 
are  found  by  careful  and  impartial  investigation. 
It  is  difficult  to  understand  how  such  foods  can  be 
sold  at  from  $100  to  $200  per  ton,  with  oil  meal, 
cottonseed  meal  and  gluten  meal  bringing  not  more 
than  $30  per  ton. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

SUMMER  PASTURE  FOR  DAIRY  COWS. 

Early  Spring  Pasture. — After  cows  have  been 
confined  to  dry  feed  all  winter,  the  first  green  blades 
in  the  spring  are  eagerly  sought  and  are  eaten  with 
great  relish.  Fresh  pasture  invariably  increases  the 
flow  of  milk,  especially  when  the  cows  have  not 
been  receiving  silage. 

Rye  sown  early  the  previous  fall  will  make  a  good 
growth  and  will  provide  an  abundance  of  green 
pasture  three  or  four  weeks  before  grass  is  ready. 
It  can  be  sown  in  the  corn  at  the  time  of  the  last 
cultivation,  and  if  the  field  is  to  be  again  planted  to 
corn  it  will  furnish  an  abundance  of  pasture  up  to 
the  time  for  plowing  the  ground.  Rye  sown  in  the 
cornfield  will  also  make  the  ground  wash  less  dur- 
ing fall  and  spring,  and  when  turned  under  it  adds 
humus  to  the  soil.  Rye  is  not  so  well  relished  as 
grass,  though  early  in  the  spring  before  grass  ap- 
pears it  seems  to  be  appreciated. 

Winter  wheat  is  sometimes  pastured  in  early 
spring  and  afterwards  allowed  to  ripen.  If  there  is 
a  good  growth  a  little  pasturing  probably  does  it 
no  harm.  It  is  similar  to  rye  in  its  effect  upon  the 
milk  flow,  and  is,  if  anything,  a  little  more  pala- 
table. 

Blue  grass  pasture  has  no  superior  for  milk  pro- 
duction, partly  because  of  its  composition  and  part- 
ly because  it  is  more  relished  than  other  grasses. 
No  matter  how  well  cows  are  fed  in  winter  they 
increase  their  flow  when  turned  on  an  abundance  of 
fresh  blue  grass  in  the  spring.  The  one  objection 

97 


98         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

to  blue  grass  is  that  it  stops  growth  during  the  hot, 
dry  weather  of  late  summer,  which  often  makes  it 
necessary  to  cut  green  crops  to  supplement  it. 

Brome  grass,  which  is  comparatively  new  in  the 
United  States,  stands  dry  weather  well  because  of 
its  longer  roots.  It  is  for  this  reason  very  popular 
in  the  drier  parts  of  the  country.  It  starts  early 
in  the  spring  and  yields  well  for  a  plant  adapted 
only  for  pasturing.  Other  grasses,  including 
meadow  fescue,  orchard  grass,  etc.,  are  used  for 
cow  pasture  and  should  be  sown  if  they  seem  to  be 
best  adapted  to  a  given  locality. 

The  legumes,  clover  and  alfalfa,  are  also  used  for 
pasture  plants,  though  the  latter  is  almost  certain 
to  cause  the  death  of  some  of  the  cows  from  bloat 
unless  sown  mixed  with  other  grasses.  Of  the  clo- 
vers, the  small  white  clover  seems  to  be  most  rel- 
ished as  a  pasture  plant. 

Mixed  grass  pastures  are  in  favor  because  they 
furnish  variety  and  usually  produce  more  food  per 
acre.  If  one  grass  fails  on  account  of  dry  weather, 
another  hardier  variety  grows  more  luxuriantly  in 
its  stead. 

Feeding  Grain  on  Pasture. — The  Cornell  Experi- 
ment Station  (New  York)  for  a  series  of  years  fed 
grain  on  grass  pasture,  from  which  test  it  was  con- 
cluded that  while  grain  often  increases  the  milk 
flow,  the  extra  flow  does  not  compensate  for  the 
grain  fed,  and  is,  therefore,  not  a  profitable  prac- 
tice when  grass  is  abundant.  This  conclusion  has 
also  been  reached  in  other  states.  If  for  any  rea- 
son pasture  is  scarce,  then  grain  or  soiling  crops 
should  be  supplied. 

Soiling,  by  which  is  meant  cutting  green  crops 
and  feeding  while  still  fresh,  is  very  commonly 
practiced  in  Europe  and  Eastern  United  States. 
Soiling  usually  begins  in  July,  when  pastures  are 


SUMMER  PASTURE  FOR  DAIRY  COWS.  <£ 

likely  to  become  dry  and  scanty.    By  its  practice 

dairymen  are  often  able  to  keep  many  more  cows 
on  a  given  acreage  of  land,  one  acre  in  soiling  crops 
producing  as  much  as  two  or  three  acres  of  pasture. 
The  labor  connected  with  soiling  is  the  one  thing 
which  will  not  make  this  practice  popular  in  the 
West,  where  at  that  season  of  tlie  year  farmers 
already  have  difficulty  in  securing  sufficient  help. 
Soiling  is  more  to  be  recommended  for  dairy 
specialists,  on  account  of  which  it,  is  not  the  pur- 
pose of  the  writer  to  enter  into  the  details  of  the 
system  for  the  benefit  of  the  general  farmer.  Brief- 
ly, it  consists  of  growing  certain  crops  which  fur- 
nish an  abundance  of  green  feed  at  successive 
periods  during  the  season.  Such  crops  as  rye, 
clov.er,  alfalfa,  oats  and  peas  mixed,  early  and  late 
corn,  sorghum,  etc.,  are  planted  at  a  time  to  insure 
a  continuous  supply  of  green  though  fairly  mature 
feed,  which  is  supposed  to  last  until  late  fall.  With 
the  advent  of  the  silo  many  prefer  to  put  up  enough 
silage  to  last  during  the  summer,  claiming  it  is  less 
expensive  than  regular  soiling  crops. 

Flies  become  very  troublesome  in  late  summer, 
not  only  reducing  the  milk  flow  but  also  causing  no 
little  annoyance  to  the  milker.  The  Kansas  Station 
recommends  the  following  as  a  fly  dope  for  milch 
cows :  Two  cakes  of  laundry  soap  are  dissolved  in 
warm  water,  into  which  solution  there  is  mixed  ij^ 
pounds  of  resin,  y2  pint  of  fish  oil  and  sufficient 
water  to  make  3  gallons.  This  may  be  applied  with 
a  brush,  or  as  a  spray  by  adding  J/£  pint  of  kerosene 
oil.  About  l/2  pint  is  put  on  each  cow  two  or  three 
times  a  week  until  the  hair  becomes  coated  with 
resin. 

Were  one  to  figure  the  cost  of  material,  and  labor 
of  putting  on  the  dope,  there  is  little  doubt  but  that 
some  sort  of  a  blanket  would  be  more  economical 


IOO         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

in  the  end.  Blankets  may  be  made  from  gunny  sack- 
ing; or  those  with  elastic  bands,  protecting  the 
under  side  of  the  body  as  well  as  the  upper,  may  be 
purchased  from  dealers  at  from  $i  to  $1.25  each. 

Shelter  in  Summer. — Many  overcome  the  fly  and 
heat  difficulty  by  housing  the  cows  in  a  dark  but 
cool  stable  during  the  day,  pasturing  in  the  field 
at  night.  Green  crops  freshly  cut  are  fed  in  the 
barn.  A  basement  barn  is  preferable,  though  any 
barn  with  a  tight  floor  above  the  cows,  giving  an 
air  space  between  this  floor  and  the  roof,  does  very 
well.  If  the  cows  are  kept  in  the  field  during  the 
day,  it  is  essentially  important  that  they  have  shade 
trees. 

Fresh  water  should  be  found  in  every  pasture  or 
conveniently  near.  The  work  of  milk  elaboration, 
whether  in  winter  or  summer,  requires  a  large  sup- 
ply of  water. 

Salt  should  be  fed  regularly  or  kept  before  the 
cows  at  all  times.  Common  salt  or  pulverized  rock 
is  preferable  to  rock  salt.  A  box  kept  under  roof  is 
perhaps  best  for  furnishing  a  continuous  supply. 

Dry  Cows. — If  the  cows  are  fresh  in  the  fall,  late 
summer  feeding  should  give  no  special  concern,  as 
every  cow  should  be  dry  at  that  season  for  at  least 
six  or  eight  weeks.  For  the  cow  not  giving  milk, 
green  feed  is  less  needed,  which  is  one  argument  in 
favor  of  having  cows  fresh  in  the  fall. 

The  dry  cow  in  winter  will  do  well  without 
grain,  if  she  has  roughage  of  the  right  character. 
The  calf  in  utero  needs  for  its  best  development  a 
large  proportion  of  protein  material,  while  the  cow 
needs  for  her  own  maintenance  a  surplus  of  heat 
and  energy-making  material,  such  as  carbohydrates 
and  fats.  Any  of  the  legumes,  whether  alfalfa, 
clover  or  cowpea  hay,  will  supply  protein.  In  fact, 
any  of  these  alone  will  furnish  more  protein  than 


SUMMER  PASTURE  FOR  DAIRY  COWS.  101 

is  actually  needed  by  the  cow  and  her  calf.  For 
the  sake  of  variety,  too,  there  should  be  fed  with  one 
of  these  protein  fodders  something  more  starchy, 
and  at  the  same  time  less  expensive,  as  corn  sto- 
ver, prairie  hay,  sorghum,  or  even  oat  straw  if 
any  of  the  others  are  not  available.  Any  one  or 
more  of  the  last  named  fodders  should  not  consti- 
tute more  than  one-third  to  one-half  the  entire 
ration  by  weight,  the  remainder  consisting  of  the 
protein  roughage.  Should  the  roughage  be  inferior 
in  quality,  it  would  be  necessary  to  supply  a  little 
grain  in  addition. 

Feeding  the  Fresh  Cow. — Immediately  after  the 
birth  of  the  calf  the  cow  will  be  weak  and  fever- 
ish. In  that  condition  she  will  require  considerable 
water — which  should  be  slightly  warmed — but  will 
show  little  inclination  for  food.  Whatever  is  given 
her  should  be  of  a  light  character,  such  as  well- 
cured  clover  or  alfalfa  and  a  little  bran,  preferably 
made  into  a  mash  by  the  use  of  warm  water.  A 
few  pounds  of  bran  will  have  a  cooling  and  laxative 
effect,  which  is  always  beneficial  just  after  calving. 
The  following  day,  four  or  five  pounds  of  a  mixture 
of  equal  parts  of  corn,  oats  and  bran  would  prove 
satisfactory.  Without  oats  it  would  be  well  to  feed 
equal  parts  by  weight  of  corn  and  bran,  gradually 
increasing  the  corn  to  three-fourths  of  the  grain 
ration,  at  the  same  time  making  the  daily  feed 
gradually  larger  until  at  the  end  of  three  weeks  she 
is  receiving  a  full  ration  of  ten  or  twelve  pounds 
of  grain  per  day,  the  exact  amount  depending  upon 
the  size  of  the  cow.  In  the  meantime  the  cow 
should  be  given  all  the  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  she  will 
consume. 

The  Abusive  Treatment  of  the  Milch  Cow  a 
Positive  Source  of  Loss. — Every  animal  is  capable 
of  doing  its  best  when  the  conditions  are  most  fa- 


102 


PROFITABLE   STOCK   FEEDING. 


vorable  for  quietness  and  contentment.  All  harsh 
treatment  results  in  a  waste  of  nervous  energy  at 
the  expense  of  food.  In  the  case  of  the  milch  cow 
gentleness  in  handling  is  still  more  important,  inas- 
much as  milk  secretion  is  a  part  of  "maternity"  in 
animals,  and  anything  in  the  way  of  unkindness 
tends  to  suppress  this  instinct,  lessening  the  flow 
of  milk  accordingly.  If  the  cow  is  well  treated  she 
will  feel  kindly  toward  her  attendant,  and  at  least 
one  condition  will  be  favorable  for  maximum  pro- 
duction. If  a  cow  acts  "mean"  there  is  always  some 
cause  for  it — either  she  inherits  a  nervous  disposi- 
tion and  for  that  reason  must  be  dealt  with  pa- 
tiently, or  she  has  been  made  "suspicious"  by  hav- 
ing had,  at  some  time  in  her  life,  unkind  treatment. 


Dairy  Cows  In  Pasture. 


CHAPTER  X. 

REARING  CALVES  ON  SKIM  MILK. 

Whole  Milk  Costly. — In  farming  sections  where 
dairy  cows  are  kept  for  butter  making,  it  is  custom- 
ary to  raise  calves  on  skim  milk.  This  may  be  milk 
from  which  the  cream  has  risen  and  has  been 
skimmed  in  the  usual  way,  or  it  may  be  milk  from 
which  the  cream  has  been  extracted  by  the  use  of 
the  separator.  While  the  butter  fat  may  be  re- 
moved more  perfectly  by  the  use  of  the  separator, 
leaving  the  milk  obtained  by  this  process  less  rich 
than  the  gravity  milk,  there  is  after  all  so  little  dif- 
ference in  the  food  value  of  the  two  kinds  that 
whatever  is  said  concerning  the  feeding  of  one  will 
apply  also  to  the  other. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  whole  milk  is  the  natural 
and  most  perfect  food  for  young  animals  and  that 
fresh  skim  milk  only  differs  from  whole  milk  in 
that  it  contains  but  little  or  no  fat,  it  would  seem 
that,  were  it  possible  to  substitute  some  less  ex- 
pensive but  equally  digestible  fat  for  butter  fat,  just 
as  good  results  could  be  secured  from  feeding  skim 
milk.  Theoretically  this  is  correct.  In  practice  it 
is  extremely  difficult  to  make  the  conditions  suf- 
ficiently favorable  to  secure  the  same  thrift  in  the 
skim  milk  calf  as  is  ordinarily  found  in  the  well 
nourished  sucking  calf.  The  latter  not  only  has  the 
milk  in  its  original  composition,  uncontaminated  by 
bacteria  and  perfectly  warmed,  but  he  is  also  com- 
pelled by  force  of  circumstances  to  take  milk  into 
the  stomach  slowly,  making  it  more  easily  acted 
upon  by  the  digestive  fluids  and  less  apt  to  cause 

••* 


104        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

scours.  But  even  though  the  whole-milk  calf  is 
somewhat  better  raised,  butter  fat  is  so  valuable  as 
a  commercial  article,  that  feeding  whole  milk  or 
permitting  calves  to  suck  their  dams  is  an  extrava- 
gant practice  on  good  farming  lands.  Skim  milk, 
therefore,  is  to  be  chiefly  relied  upon  for  growing 
all  calves  on  the  farm  except  pure-breds  of  the  beef 
breeds.  How  to  obtain  best  results  from  feeding 
skim  milk  is  worthy  of  careful  consideration. 

Early  Feeding. — The  young  calf  should  be  given 
a  good  start  by  having  fresh  whole  milk  at  least 
the  first  week.  It  is  better  for  the  cow  if  the  calf 
is  fed  from  the  pail  the  second  or  third  day  after 
birth,  and  the  calf  may  be  taught  to  drink  with  less 
trouble  at  this  age  than  later.  From  four  to  six 
quarts  a  day,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  calf, 
is  enough  during  the  first  week.  If  this  amount 
could  be  given  in  three  feeds  it  would  be  better 
for  the  calf.  During  the  second  week  the  feeding 
may  be  done  twice  a  day,  and  a  little  skim  milk — 
perhaps  a  half  pint — substituted  for  whole  milk,  the 
amount  to  be  increased  very  gradually  until  at  the 
end  of  three  weeks  the  whole  milk  is  entirely  with- 
drawn, when  the  calf  should  be  receiving  from  five 
to  seven  quarts  of  skim  milk  per  day.  At  the  close 
of  the  second  month  eight  or  nine  quarts  may  ordi- 
narily be  fed  a  good-sized  calf  without  inducing 
scours,  which  sometimes  result  from  overfeeding  on 
milk.  At  four  months  of  age  ten  quarts  may  be 
given,  and  at  five  months  eleven  quarts. 

Scours. — Should  a  calf  become  affected  with 
scours,  a  raw  egg  mixed  in  the  milk  will  usually 
bring  relief,  or,  if  a  severe  case,  a  tablespoonful  of 
castor  oil,  followed  by  a  raw  egg  every  two  hours 
until  four  to  six  eggs  are  taken.  A  teaspoonful  of 
soluble  blood  meal,  another  form  of  albumen — sold 
by  the  packing  houses  for  about  3  cents  a  pound — 


REARING  CALVES  ON  SKIM  MILK.  105 

stirred  in  the  milk  will  act  in  a  way  similar  to  the 
egg  and  is  much  less  expensive.  The  Kansas  Sta- 
tion reports  excellent  results  with  dried  blood 
(blood  meal),  claiming  that  a  mild  case  of  scours 
can  be  cured  in  one  or  two  days  by  adding  a  tea- 
spoonful  to  the  milk,  which  last  should  be  tempo- 
rarily reduced  in  quantity.  The  Idaho  Station  rec- 
ommends for  scours  an  ounce  of  lime  water  added 
to  the  milk. 

Skim  milk  should  be  warmed  to  a  temperature  of 
90  to  100  degrees  Fahrenheit  before  feeding.  Cold 
milk  chills  the  calf  and  often  brings  on  digestive 
disorders.  On  the  other  hand,  if  milk  is  heated  to 
the  scalding  point  the  albumen  coagulates  and  rises 
to  the  top  in  the  form  of  a  scum,  which  coagulation 
renders  it  less  digestible.  Every  one  who  raises 
calves  on  skim  milk  should  be  provided  with  a 
small  glass  thermometer  that  may  be  hung  with 
the  bulb  submerged  in  the  milk,  by  which  means 
the  warming  may  be  discontinued  at  the  proper 
time. 

The  feeding  buckets  should  be  made  of  tin  or 
galvanized  iron,  having  just  as  few  seams  as  possi- 
ble. Milk  is  likely  to  collect  in  these  seams,  where 
it  becomes  charged  with  bacteria,  these  micro-or- 
ganisms affecting  the  milk  in  such  a  way  as  to  set 
up  fermentation  and  consequent  indigestion  in  the 
calf.  Infection  from  bacteria  can  only  be  avoided 
by  thoroughly  washing  and  scalding  the  buckets 
after  each  feed.  Probably  more  than  half  the  dis- 
orders prevalent  among  skim  milk  calves  have  their 
source  in  unscalded  buckets.  The  calf  is  very 
susceptible  to  disorders  from  contamination.  At 
creameries  skim  milk  is  often  sterilized  by  introduc- 
ing steam  from  the  boilers,  which  makes  it  more 
wholesome. 

Fat  Substitutes. — Several  concentrated  foodstuffs 


IO6       PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

rich  in  fat  have  been  tested  as  butter  fat  substitutes. 
Flaxseed  meal  is  richest  in  fat  and  can  be  used  very 
successfully.  Soon  after  a  part  of  the  whole  milk 
is  withdrawn  and  skim  milk  is  fed  in  its  stead,  a 
tablespoonful  of  flaxseed  meal  may  be  stirred  in  the 
milk  each  day  just  before  feeding-.  Making  a  jelly 
by  pouring  hot  water  on  flaxseed  meal  is  an 
excellent  way  of  feeding  this  meal.  A  table- 
spoonful  of  jelly  may  be  added  to  each  feed, 
the  amount  gradually  increased  until  as  high  as 
a  half  pound  per  day  is  fed  to  the  six-weeks-old 
calf.  Old  process  linseed  meal  is  often  used  in  the 
same  way,  though  it  is  less  rich  in  fat.  Corn  germ 
meal,  a  by-product  from  the  manufacture  of  glucose 
and  corn  starch,  is  also  made  to  serve  as  a  substi- 
tute for  butter  fat.  Corn  oil,  another  by-product 
made  by  glucose  factories,  has  recently  been  tested 
by  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station,  but  with  re- 
sults less  satisfactory  because  of  the  cathartic  effect 
of  the  oil.  It  is,  furthermore,  difficult  to  mix  corn 
oil  with  skim  milk.  Flaxseed  and  linseed  meal  are 
well  adapted  for  early  feeding,  because  they  con- 
tain little  or  no  starch,  and  the  very  young  calf  is 
lacking  the  necessary  equipment  for  digesting 
starch.  Whole  milk  contains  sugar,  but  no  starch. 
Mixing  flaxseed  jelly  with  the  milk  need  not  be  con- 
tinued after  the  first  few  weeks,  as  dry  grain 
should  be  fed  separately  just  as  soon  as  the  calf  can 
be  induced  to  eat  it.  By  putting  grain  in  the 
bottom  of  the  bucket  after  the  milk  has  been  con- 
sumed it  can  be  fed  early,  and  this  practice  has  the 
further  advantage  of  diverting  the  attention  of  the 
calf,  causing  him  to  eat  grain  rather  than  to  suck 
the  ears  of  his  mates,  which  seems  to  be  a  natural 
tendency  with  calves  after  drinking  milk. 

Stanchions    overcome    the    sucking    habit    most 
effectually,  and  they  have  the  further  advantage  of 


REARING  CALVES  ON  SKIM  MILK.        IO7 

being  wonderfully  convenient  when  several  calves 
are  kept  together,  as  by  their  use  all  the  calves  may 
be  quickly  and  securely  held  as  long  as  seems  neces- 
sary. The  stanchion  is  a  simple  contrivance  made 
of  narrow  boards  fixed  vertically  and  sufficiently 
far  apart  to  permit  the  calf  to  enter  his  head  at 
feeding  time,  the  attendant  thereupon  fastening  the 
boards  closely  enough  together  to  make  it  impossi- 
ble for  the  head  to  be  drawn  out.  On  the  floor  or 
ground  in  front  is  a  feed  box  just  wide  enough  to 
hold  a  pail  firmly  and  long  enough  to  accommodate 
the  desired  number  of  calves.  The  lumber  required 
for  ten  stanchions,  as  given  by  the  Kansas  Experi- 
ment Station,  is  as  follows : 

1  piece  I"xl2"xl2',  for  bottom  of  feed-box. 

2  pieces  I"xl2"xl6',  for  bottom  of  feed-box  (8  ft.),  upright 
partitions  (24). 

2  pieces  I"x6"xl0',  for  front  of  feed-box. 
5  pieces    I"x6"xl6',   cypress   or   full-thickness  pine,   for  top 
and  bottom  rails. 

5  pieces  I"x4"xl2',  full  thickness,  for  fixed  uprights. 

2  pieces  I"x4"xl6',  %"  thick,  for  swinging  uprights. 
10  pieces  3"x6"xl",  for  tongues  or  locks. 

3  posts  6  feet  in  length. 

3  blocks  6"xl2"  under  feed-box. 

"The  stanchions  are  two  feet  wide  between  the 
partitions  and  three  and  one-half  feet  high.  The 
board  along  the  front  of  the  feed  boxes  is  hinged, 
so  it  may  be  turned  down  and  the  boxes  thoroughly 
cleaned  out.  At  the  end  of  the  stanchion  is  a  rack 
for  hay.  With  these  stanchions  a  feeder  can  keep 
four  pails  going  and  can  feed  a  bunch  of  calves  in  a 
very  short  time."  (See  illustration,  page  112.) 

Grain  Feeding. — Not  only  can  milk  be  fed  more 
conveniently  by  use  of  the  stanchions,  but  the 
calves  can  be  induced  to  eat  dry  grain  earlier  by 
having  them  thus  fastened.  After  drinking  milk 
they  seem  to  crave  something  to  put  in  the  mouth, 
and  if  other  calves'  ears  are  not  within  reach  they 


IO8  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

very  often  nibble  at  grain  placed  before  them  even 
when  they  are  but  ten  days  or  two  weeks  old.  For 
young  calves  nothing  superior  to  oats  seems  to  have 
been  discovered.  At  an  early  age,  too,  calves  show 
an  inclination  for  something  bulky,  which  craving 
should  be  satisfied,  as  it  is  but  a  manifestation  of  a 
physiological  law.  Oats,  which  are  easily  digested, 
furnish  bulk,  and,  in  addition  to  these  advantages, 
contain  a  rather  high  percentage  of  fat.  No  farm 
food  in  common  use  excels  oats  in  their  tendency  to 
counteract  scours  in  calves.  Whole  oats  seem  bet- 
ter than  the  ground  grain. 

As  the  calf  becomes  a  little  older  a  small  portion 
of  shelled  corn  may  be  added,  increasing  the  amount 
to  equal  parts  of  oats  and  corn  as  weaning  time 
approaches.  Here  again  the  whole  grain  is  prefer- 
able. It  has  a  fresher  flavor,  inasmuch  as  meal 
sometimes  taints  from  exposure,  the  oil  being  most 
susceptible  to  decomposition.  Calves,  furthermore, 
seem  fond  of  cracking  the  whole  grains.  The  Kan- 
sas Station  in  a  recent  test  found  the  whole  grain 
considerably  more  profitable  than  the  meal.  Bran, 
rich  in  both  mineral  matter  and  protein  for  bone 
development,  is  sometimes  added,  though  it  is  often- 
times rather  too  laxative  for  calves  receiving  skim 
milk ;  the  milk,  too,  furnishes  all  the  protein  needed. 
By  a  judicious  use  of  farm  grains,  commercial 
foods,  while  often  profitable,  are  not  essential. 

Quantity  of  Grain  Most  Profitable  for  Skim  Milk 
Calves. — The  following,  again  furnished  by  the 
Kansas  Station,  are  timely  data  upon  this  subject: 


REARING  CALVES  ON  SKIM  MILK. 


ICQ 


II 

3'^2  §'3 

fa  3* 

HP    g* 

P  ,__, 

^  c4-  O 

5  S- 

S    S 

Number  of  calve 

s 

§' 

1—  t        I—1 
D        O 

Days  fed 

£ 

£        M  ._. 
3S        OS  ~ 

O        so  y 

Skim  milk 

oo    *M  tr* 
2    feS* 

Shelled  corn 

CD 

00        0 

S 

M  M 

g 

OS  00 

S'  ^ 

OO         M   ^ 

Ground 

o  oo 

CO  01 

PLS 

& 

oo      b 

Kafir  corn  .  .  . 

3 

M         CO 

<*5    ^ 

o 

^1         CO  t"1 

M       O 

*3 

QfQ 
ja 

ro       h-i  o" 
w       os  » 

Pi 

M  M 

"*  w 

B 

OS         o 

M  ^ 

S'  & 

» 

p 

"M     "bo  cT 

Prairie  hay 

CJrf 

M 

"b  oo 
§3 

g 

s 

1 

S     °°  ^ 

Alfalfa  hay 

o 

-q  i-i 

r 

B 

^ 

B 

i  ii1 

Oat  hay 

p 

S 

CO         0 

M  M 

o  to 

-1  CO 

I 

1 

OS          CO  • 

Mixed  hay 

a 

CO  OS 

P 

1 

I—1         •      M 

M    :  g 

Tame  hay, 

O 

b\      ' 

OS  rfi- 

M     W 

PJ 

r^  F 

P    0 

If 

1 

i-» 

i  ^? 

ft 

•?£ 

^       0 

IIO  PROFITABLE   STOCK   FEEDING. 

If  the  skim  milk  is  figured  at  15  cents  per  hun- 
dred, as  is  customary,  the  roughness  $5  per  ton, 
and  the  grain  70  cents  per  hundred,  each  pound  of 
gain  on  the  heavy  or  full  grain  ration  costs  3.17 
cents,  while  on  three-quarters  of  a  full  grain  feed 
the  cost  would  be  4.85  cents,  a  favorable  showing 
for  a  full  feed  of  grain  in  connection  with  skim 
milk.  The  table  is  of  interest  in  that  it  shows  how 
much  of  the  different  feeds  was  consumed  during 
the  140  days.  Kafir  corn  was  fed  ground,  because 
the  seeds  are  small  and  hard.  In  another  test  30 
per  cent  was  saved  by  grinding  Kafir  corn. 

Roughage  of  the  best  quality  the  farm  affords 
should  be  placed  within  reach  of  calves  when  two 
or  three  weeks  old.  Prairie  hay  is  more  constipat- 
ing than  alfalfa,  though  the  latter  is  much  more 
relished,  and,  if  an  early  cutting,  is  not  likely  to  be 
excessively  loosening.  Clover  is  first-class — very 
much  better  than  timothy,  which  is  rather  too 
harsh  and  coarse  for  young  calves. 

Pasture  for  skim  milk  calves  should  not  be  too 
watery,  because  of  its  laxativeness.  Turning  spring 
calves  out  early  is,  therefore,  not  to  be  recom- 
mended. Even  in  later  summer  many  prefer  to 
stable  such  calves,  because  flies  seem  unusually  ir- 
ritating to  these  young  animals.  Oats  are  an  excel- 
lent grain  for  calves  on  pasture. 

Weaning  from  milk  is  a  matter  which  should  not 
be  hastened.  While  four  months  on  milk  is  more 
nearly  the  usual  period  of  feeding,  six  months  is 
better  when  it  can  be  done  conveniently.  If  the 
calves  are  receiving  grain  liberally  at  weaning  time, 
there  will  follow  but  a  very  light  shrinkage,  much 
lighter  than  in  the  case  of  sucking  calves. 

The  cost  of  raising  a  skim  milk  calf  was  deter- 
mined at  the  Kansas  Station  by  averaging  the  re- 
sults of  thirteen  different  experiments,  the  average 


REARING  CALVES  ON  SKIM  MILK.        Ill 

period  of  feeding  being  125  days.  With  skim  milk 
at  15  cents  per  hundred,  grain  at  50  cents  per  hun- 
dred and  roughness  at  $4  per  ton,  each  calf  con- 
sumed milk  costing  $2.52,  grain  $1.27,  roughness 
$1.51,  while  labor  cost  $2.13,  making  a  total  of  $7.43. 

The  patent  calf  feeders,  as  put  on  the  market,  are 
easily  contaminated,  because  the  nipples  are  diffi- 
cult to  clean.  This  seems  to  be  the  chief  reason 
why  those  who  have  tested  them  are  unfavorable 
to  their  use. 

Dehorning  Calves. — Stock  cattle  without  horns 
ordinarily  outsell  horned  cattle  of  the  same  quality 
from  15  to  25  cents  per  hundred,  which  is  the 
strongest  kind  of  an  argument  in  favor  of  dehorn- 
ing. The  operation  is  simple  and  causes  so  little 
discomfort  to  the  animal  if  done  on  calves  by 
means  of  caustic  potash,  a  brief  statement  concern- 
ing the  use  of  the  caustic  seems  pertinent. 

When  the  calf  is  three  or  four  days  old,  clip  the 
hair  from  where  the  rudimentary  horns,  or  buttons, 
later  appear,  and  with  a  stick  of  caustic  potash, 
wrapped  at  one  end  to  protect  the  fingers,  rub  over 
the  button  until  the  skin  becomes  a  little  inflamed 
and  more  or  less  tender  to  the  touch.  A  scab  will 
appear  after  a  few  days  and  further  growth  of  the 
horn  will  cease.  Caustic  is  exceedingly  painful  if 
allowed  to  run  down  over  the  face.  This  work 
should  be  done  before  the  horns  break  through  the 
skin,  necessarily  within  a  few  days  after  the  birth 
of  the  calf. 

Shelter  for  calves  is  important  in  winter,  because 
small  cattle  are  much  more  susceptible  to  cold 
weather  than  larger  ones.  Straw  bedding  should 
be  used  liberally  to  keep  the  ground  dry  and  to 
provide  a  comfortable  bed.  Shelter  during  the  hot 
summer  weather  is  also  desirable  because  of 
troublesome  flies.  Calves  should  not,  however,  be 
deprived  of  sunshine  the  entire  day.  If  confined 


112 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


during  the  middle  of  hot  summer  days,  they  should 
be  given  the  privilege  of  the  pasture  lot  the  re- 
mainder of  the  day  for  both  light  and  exercise.  In 
winter,  calves  should  have  the  sun's  rays  as  much 
as  possible. 

Fresh,  pure  water  should  be  provided  in  addition 
to  milk. 

Salt  is  also  needed.  For  convenience  it  can  be 
placed  in  a  box  nailed  within  the  shelter,  where  the 
calves  may  lick  it  whenever  so  inclined.  Loose 
salt  is  preferable  to  rock  salt. 

With  the  exercise  of  skill  and  attention  to  details, 
calves  may  be  reared  on  skim  milk  very  success- 
fully. Probably  no  animals  of  any  class  are  more 
responsive  to  skillful  treatment.  It  is  certainly  a 
less  expensive  method  of  producing  the  first  few 
hundred  pounds  of  beef  than  to  permit  the  calves 
to  draw  whole  milk  from  the  dam ;  and,  while  they 
may  have  less  bloom  and  rotundity  of  form,  they 
will  have  sufficient  digestive  capacity  to  insure  good 
future  gains. 


REAR  VIEW  OF  CALF  STANCHIONS  AS  USED  AT  THE  KAN- 
SAS  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


PART  III 

BEEF  CATTLE 

CHAPTER  XI. 

BEEF  TYPE. 

Meat  as  a  Food. — Notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
there  exists  a  class  of  people  known  as  vegetarians 
who  are  using  their  influence  against  the  consump- 
tion of  meat,  the  industry  promises  to  continue. 
Americans  are  particularly  fond  of  meat.  We  have 
the  reputation  of  being  the  heaviest  meat-consum- 
ing nation  in  the  world,  and  many  attribute  much 
of  our  rapid  social  and  industrial  advancement  to 
this  fact.  Meat  is  too  high  in  price  to  be  used  as  a 
staple  article  of  food  in  the  Old  World  except  in 
the  more  wealthy  families.  The  study  of  more  eco- 
nomical methods  of  production,  to  keep  the  supply 
in  America  more  nearly  at  a  pace  with  the  growing 
demands  of  an  increasing  population,  would  seem, 
therefore,  to  be  of  vital  interest  to  consumer  as 
well  as  to  producer. 

Nearly  all  meat  consumed  comes  from  domesti- 
cated farm  animals — cattle,  sheep  and  swine  fur- 
nishing by  far  the  larger  part,  though  fowls  must 
be  given  recognition  for  their  place  in  meat  as  well 
as  egg  production.  These  classes  of  animals  will 
be  discussed  in  the  order  given,  because  of  a 
greater  similarity  between  the  first  two  in  the 
matter  of  food  requirements. 

113 


114        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

Quality  of  the  finished  product  has  been  men- 
tioned as  one  of  the  two  important  factors  in  profit- 
able feeding.  Quality  is  important  because  it 
means  a  higher  price  per  pound  for  the  meat  animal 
when  marketed,  though  produced  at  no  greater  cost 
for  food  consumed.  It  is  obtained  by  feeding  prop- 
erly balanced  rations  to  animals  of  good  type. 

A  meat  animal  is  of  good  type,  (I)  which  prom- 
ises when  properly  fattened  to  satisfy  the  demands 
of  .the  market,  and  (II)  which  also  has  sufficient 
.vigor  of  constitution  and  power  of  assimilation  to 
make  satisfactory  gains  in  the  feed-lot. 

I.  Percentage  of  Dressed  Weight  Influenced 
by  Type  as  Well  as  by  Fatness. — The  market  calls 
for  an  animal  which  will,  first  of  all,  dress  with- 
out excessive  offal,  or  waste.  Other  things  be- 
ing equal,  the  fatter  the  animal  the  higher  the 
per  cent  of  dressed  weight.  This  is  true  because 
the  meat  animal  is  both  a  manufacturing  institu- 
tion and  a  storehouse  for  its  own  goods.  As  the 
fattening  process  goes  on,  weight  is  added  to  the 
carcass  with  little  or  no  increase  in  the  weight  of 
the  machinery. 

The  importance  of  condition  in  its  relation  to 
selling  price  will  be  better  understood  by  the  state- 
ment that  a  thin  i,2OO-pound  steer  worth  5  cents 
per  pound  on  foot,  dressing  50  per  cent,  would 
yield  enough  more  meat,  were  it  fat  enough  to  dress 
60  per  cent,  to  make  it  worth  6  cents  per  pound  in- 
stead of  5. 

But  fatness  alone  does  not  determine  the  per- 
centage of  waste.  Individual  specimens  of  cattle, 
sheep,  or  swine  in  the  same  condition  vary  in  per 
cent  of  waste,  because  some  individuals  are  nat- 
urally heavy  in  those  parts  which  constitute  offal. 
Unimproved  animals,  commonly  called  scrubs,  dress 
with  more  waste  because  they  have  not  been  bred 


BEEF  TYPE. 

for  thick  carcasses.  The  dairy  breeds  of  cattle 
when  fattened  are  likely  to  have  more  waste  than 
the  beef  breeds,  because  they  are  larger  in  paunch, 
or  barrel.  The  mutton  breeds  of  sheep  dress  higher 
than  the  wool  breeds,  while  the  so-called  "lard" 
breeds  of  swine  dress  higher  than  the  bacon  breeds. 

In  the  matter  of  market  carcass  requirements  for 
cattle,  sheep  and  swine  there  is  a  marked  similarity, 
so  much  so  that  whatever  is  said  concerning  beef 
carcasses  will  apply  in  a  general  way  to  sheep  and 
swine,  with  exceptions  as  hereafter  stated. 

Beef  Carcass  Requirements. — A  choice  beef  car- 
cass (i)  should  be  proportionately  heavy  in  those 
parts  which  sell  for  the  highest  prices  and  corre- 
spondingly light  in  the  cheaper  cuts.  (2)  It  should 
not  be  heavy  in  bone.  (3)  It  should  have  a  pre- 
dominance of  lean  tissue.  (4)  The  fat  should  be 
evenly  distributed  over  the  carcass,  not  occurring  in 
patches  or  "gobs,"  and  flakes  of  fat  should  be  dis- 
tributed between  the  fibers  of  lean.  (5)  The  lean 
fibers  should  not  be  coarse,  and  they  should  be  light 
red  rather  than  dark  in  color,  and  tender  in  charac- 
ter. 

(i)  Large  Proportion  of  High  Priced  Meat. — 
To  be  profitable  on  the  block  the  beef  animal 
must  be  endowed  by  Nature  with  a  broad  back, 
which  covers  thickly  with  meat  as  the  fattening 
process  nears  completion.  The  importance  of  the 
broad,  thick  back  will  be  at  once  apparent  by  re- 
ferring to  Fig.  i,  which  shows  the  location  of  each 
market  cut  of  beef  and  the  retail  price  per  pound 
in  the  average  Western  market.  The  price  which 
the  consumer  is  willing  to  pay  for  these  different 
cuts  is  a  good  criterion  of  their  relative  values.  In 
the  markets  of  large  Eastern  cities,  where  there  is 
more  wealth,  the  choicer  cuts  sell  relatively  higher, 
because  there  is  a  greater  demand  for  them. 


PROFITABLE  STOCK   FEEDING. 


Figure  1. — Angus  steer,  side  view,  showing  butcher's  cuts  Live 
weight,  1,550  Ibs.  ;  dressed  weight,  1,046  Ibs.  Retail  prices 
(western):  (1)  neck,  40  Ibs.  at  4  cts.;  (2)  chuck,  237  Ibs. 
at  7  cts.;  (3)  prime  of  rib,  117  Ibs.  at  12%  cts.;  (4)  porter- 
house steak,  103  Ibs.  at  18  cts.  ;  (5)  sirloin  steak,  87  Ibs.  at 
15  cts.  ;  (6)  rump,  36  Ibs.  at  10  cts.  ;  (7)  round  steak,  183 
Ibs.  at  10  cts. ;  (8)  shank,  30  Ibs.  at  2  cts. ;  (9)  flank,  52  Ibs. 
at  4  cts. ;  (10)  ribs  plate,  138  Ibs.  at  5  cts. ;  (11)  shank,  23 
Ibs.  at  2  cts. 


Figure  2. — Jersey  steer,  side  view,  showing  heavy  middle  and  light 
bind  quarters. 


BEEF  TYPE. 


117 


Fig.  3 — Rear  view  of  the  Angus  and  Jersey  steers,  showing  strong 
contrast  in  the  development  of  back,  loin,  rump,  and  thighs. 


(1)  Rib  cut  from  the  Angus  steers,  wt.  117  lbs.t  11.1%  of  the 

carcass. 

(2)  Rib   cut   from   the   Jersey  steer,   wt.   70  Ibs.,   10.1%   of   the 

carcass. 


Il8        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

From  the  diagram  it  will  also  be  seen  that  the 
hind  quarter  has  valuable  meat,  though  somewhat 
less  valuable  than  the  back.  It  is  important,  there- 
fore, that  the  finished  steer  should  have  a  broad 
rump  and  full,  wide  thighs.  The  cheaper  cuts  are 
the  plates,  neck  and  shoulder,  none  of  which  should 
be  excessively  large. 

(2)  Bone. — The  proportion  of  bone  to  meat 
should  not  be  large,  as  the  consumer  does  not  wish 
to  pay  meat  prices  for  bone.  Some  individuals 
possess  altogether  more  bone  than  is  necessary. 
This  is  particularly  true  of  the  unimproved  types 
of  cattle. 

To  illustrate  what  has  already  been  said  con- 
cerning beef  type,  the  reader  is  asked  to  compare 
the  high-grade  Angus  steer  shown  in  Fig.  I  with 
the  high-grade  Jersey,  in  Fig.  2.  The  Angus 
weighed  1,600  pounds  and  the  Jersey  1,230  pounds, 
although  the  Jersey  was  three  months  older.  The 
rations  fed  these  steers  were  the  same  in  character, 
and  both  animals  were  fat  and  ripe  when  slaugh- 
tered. The  Jersey  dressed  7  per  cent  less  than  the 
Angus;  and  of  the  7  per  cent  more  offal  in  the 
Jersey,  3  per  cent  consisted  of  fat  deposited  about 
the  stomach,  intestines  and  kidneys — worth  in  the 
retail  market  2  cents  per  pound.  This  is  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  greater  dressing  capacity  of  the  good 
beef  type  over  the  inferior.  The  larger  middle  of 
the  Jersey,  as  seen  in  the  illustration,  is  entirely 
consistent  with  the  figures  given. 

By  referring  to  Fig.  3  we  have  a  rear  view  of  the 
same  two  steers,  showing  the  broad,  thick  back  and 
loin,  full  rump  and  wide,  full  thighs  of  the  Angus 
as  compared  with  the  Jersey.  The  fullness  of  flesh 
well  down  and  toward  the  gambrel,  permitting  the 
retailer  to  cut  round  steak  much  lower  on  the 
Angus,  is  strongly  brought  out  in  the  photograph. 


BEEF  TYPE. 

In  this  case  no  one  would  maintain  that  the  Jersey 
had  as  much  high-priced  meat  as  the  Angus.  The 
picture  of  the  rib  cuts  in  these  two  steers  shows  a 
larger  proportion  of  this  choice  meat  in  the  Angus. 
While  the  Jersey  in  the  illustration  does  not  show 
an  extremely  heavy  bone,  it  is  much  more  pro- 
nounced than  in  the  Angus.  The  smooth,  well- 
covered  Angus  has  the  appearance  of  a  package  of 
beef  with  only  enough  bone  to  give  it  permanency 
of  form.  In  the  Jersey,  or  inferior  butcher's  type, 
bone  stands  out  prominently — hips,  shoulders  and 
ribs  being  poorly  covered. 

(3)  Predominance   of   Lean   Desirable. — Individ- 
ual specimens  vary  considerably  in  the  proportion 
of  fat  to  lean.  In  a  recent  carcass  test  with  high- 
grade  Angus  steers  fed  in  the  same  manner,  the 
writer  found  that  the  lean  muscle  which  extends 
over  the  back  measured  in  one  case  four  inches 
thick,  while  in  another  individual  it  measured  four 
and    three-fourths   of   an    inch    in   thickness.     The 
steer  with  a  4-inch  muscle  had  a  covering  of  ify 
inches  of  chine  fat,  while  the  steer  with  a  424-inch 
muscle  had  but  I  inch  of  fat  covering.    This  differ- 
ence was  not  due  to  feed  or  breed,  but  rather  to  a 
difference  in  type.     When  undergoing  judgment  on 
foot,  the  steer  whose  back  presented  less  fat  and 
more   lean   showed   a   firmness   under   pressure   of 
the  hand,  while  the  fatty  steer  was  soft. 

(4)  Evenness  of  Flesh. — A  certain  amount  of  fat 
covering,  however,  is  desirable,  inasmuch  as  it  pro- 
tects the  lean  during  the  ripening  process.     Meat 
is    very   much    more    tender    and    palatable    after    it 
has  hung  in  the  coolers  a  few  weeks  and  has  been 
allowed  to  ripen.     If  it  is  not  covered  with  a  layer 
of   fat,   it  becomes   tainted   from   exposure  to   the 
atmosphere.     It  is  neither  necessary  nor  desirable, 
however,  to  have  the.  fat  layer  excessively  thick. 


I2O        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

There  are  some  individuals,  more  commonly  in  cer- 
tain beef  breeds,  which  have  a  tendency  to  accumu- 
late fat  in  patches,  or  gobs.  In  the  live  animals  this 
is  most  noticeable  about  the  tail-head.  It  also 
occurs  as  rolls  over  the  ribs.  Such  accumulations 
of  fat  are  undesirable,  because  they  must  be  cut  off 
as  so  much  tallow  worth  but  a  few  cents  per  pound. 
Fat  should  not  only  be  evenly  distributed  over  the 
carcass,  but  a  certain  amount  should  also  be  found 
distributed  between  the  fibers  of  lean  as  flakes. 
This  makes  the  lean  more  tender  and  juicy.  Ani- 
mals which  have  a  firmness  of  flesh  free  from 
patches  are  likely  to  have  this  admixture  of  fat 
and  lean. 

(5)  Meat  Fiber. — Meat  inclined  to  be  coarse  in 
fiber  is  less  tender  and  palatable.  Coarsness  in  bone 
and  hair  is  usually  associated  with  coarseness  in 
meat  grain.  In  the  live  animal  we  therefore  have 
a  guide  which  is  indicative  of  quality  in  the  grain 
of  meat.  Tenderness  of  fiber  is  a  question  of  age 
more  than  of  type.  Old  animals,  no  matter  how 
good  in  type  or  finish,  must  be  sold  at  a  discount, 
because  the  meat  will  be  tough.  The  three-year- 
old  steer  would  not  be  considered  past  its  prime 
in  this  respect.  At  any  rate,  the  market  makes  no 
discrimination  against  three-year-old  beeves  be- 
cause of  too  much  age,  though  more  age  than  this 
is  undesirable,  even  from  the  butcher's  point  of 
view. 

II.  Feeder  Requisites. — The  utility  of  the  ani- 
mal on  the  block  is  in  itself  important,  but  it  is  not 
the  only  requisite  of  good  type.  An  animal  may 
fully  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  butcher,  and  yet 
not  be  profitable  to  the  feeder  because  of  failure 
to  make  satisfactory  growth.  From  the  feeder's 
viewpoint  an  animal  (i)  should  be  capable  of  mak- 
ing large  daily  gains  from  a  given  supply  of  food, 
and  (2)  should  mature  early. 


BEEF  TYPE.  121 

Gaining  Propensity. — In  the  capacity  for  making 
gains,  we  find  a  wide  variation  among  individuals  of 
the  bovine  race.  Some  steers  are  known  to  have  gained 
as  high  as  four  pounds  per  day  for  a  short  period, 
while  others,  even  under  forced  feeding,  have  gained 
but  one  pound  per  day.  A  difference  of  50  per  cent 
in  the  rapidity  of  making  gains  is  not  at  all  unusual, 
even  when  in  the  same  condition  of  flesh.  The  big 
gainers  consume  more  feed,  because  they  have 
stronger  powers  of  assimilation,  but  they  are  more 
economical  feeders,  inasmuch  as  less  food  is  consumed 
to  make  a  pound  of  increase  in  weight.  The  capacity 
for  making  gains  is  largely  a  question  of  inherent  vigor 
and  active  powers  of  assimilation. 

External  Indications  of  Gaining  Capacity. — For- 
tunately for  the  man  who  buys  cattle  for  the  feed-lot, 
there  are  certain  external  qualities  which  serve  as 
an  index  to  feeding  capacity.  ( I )  The  abdominal  cav- 
ity, occupying  the  middle  of  the  animal,  should  be 
roomy.  A  steer,  slender  and  tucked  up  in  body,  is  un- 
able to  utilize  a  large  amount  of  feed  and  therefore 
cannot  make  heavy  gains.  There  should  be  not  only 
good  depth  and  breadth  of  body  in  the  abdominal 
region,  but  this  breadth  and  depth  should  extend  for- 
ward to  include  the  chest  cavity.  (2)  A  lack  of 
width  through  the  chest  would  indicate  that  the  vital 
organs,  including  lungs  and  heart,  are  restricted  in 
development.  An  animal  having  poor  chest  develop- 
ment is  invariably  a  slow  feeder.  This  seems  reason- 
able in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  lungs  and  heart  play 
so  important  a  part  in  purifying  the  blood  and  for- 
cing it  to  circulate  throughout  the  entire  system. 
The  blood  being  the  medium  which  carries  off  worn- 
out  tissue  and  replaces  it  with  fresh  matter  taken 
from  the  digestive  tract,  is  a  most  important  factor 
in  digestion  and  assimilation.  If  there  is  a  lack  of 
lung  development — indicated  by  narrow  chest,  slen- 


122 


'ROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 


Good  feeder  but  poor  butcher's  type.  Grade  Angus  steer ;  age,  two 
years,  ten  months ;  weight,  1,850  Ibs.  A  remarkable  feeder, 
as  indicated  by  a  powerful  chest  and  large  abdomen,  but  a  poor 
killer  because  of  too  much  forequarter,  excessive  plates  and 
gobby  fat.  This  steer  was  the  heaviest  of  a  lot  of  twelve  choice 
Angus  steers,  but  his  carcass  was  valued  at  $1  per  cwt.  below 
the  others. 


A  South  Omaha  "sunfish."    An  inferior  type  from  the  viewpoint  of 
both  butcher  and  feeder. 


BEEF  TYPE.  123 

der  neck  at  the  base,  and  small  nostril — the  oxida- 
tion, or  purification,  of  the  blood  must  be  corre- 
spondingly slow.  .  (3)  An  active,  healthy  cir- 
culation of  blood,  and  active  digestion  and  as- 
similation are  also  indicated  by  the  character 
of  the  skin  and  the  hair.  The  outer  skin  is  a 
continuation  of  the  inner  skin,  which  constitutes  the 
stomach  and  the  intestines.  If  the  outer  skin  is  dry 
and  harsh,  lacking  in  pliableness,  we  may  expect  a 
poorly  nourished  inner  skin.  A  soft,  pliable  skin,  cov- 
ered with  a  thick,  mossy  growth  of  soft,  fine  hair, 
oily  in  appearance,  is  almost  a  certain  indication  of 
active  digestion  and  assimilation  of  food.  Drawing 
the  skin  between  thumb  and  forefinger  is  the  surest 
way  of  determining  its  handling  quality.  In  buy- 
ing steers  for  the  feed-lot,  however,  this  is  not  often 
possible,  because  of  the  timidity  of  the  animal.  A 
feeder  of  long  experience  learns  to  associate  a 
bright,  healthy  coat  of  luxuriant  hair  with  gaining 
capacity.  He  learns  to  avoid  the  skin  having  the 
appearance  of  being  drawn  tightly  over  the  body. 
These  are  qualities  which  may  be  observed  by  the 
eye. 

Gaining  Capacity  a  Question  of  Type  Rather 
Than  Breed. — The  ability  to  make  rapid  and  eco- 
nomical gains  is,  therefore,  a  question  of  type 
rather  than  of  breed.  Several  experiment  sta- 
tions have  at  various  times  conducted  so-called 
breed  tests,  in  which  one  or  two  specimens  of 
each  breed,  both  dairy  and  beef,  have  been  fed  in 
comparison  with  steers  of  unknown  breeding,  com- 
monly called  scrubs.  These  tests  have  not  proved  that 
one  breed  is  superior  to  another,  nor  that  steers  of  the 
beef  breeds  are  superior  as  gainers  to  all  dairy  bred 
steers  and  natives.  Where  a  representative  of  a  cer- 
tain breed  made  the  largest  gain  in  one  test,  a  repre- 
sentative of  a  different  breed  came  out  ahead  in  another 


124 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


GOOD   TYPE— GRADE    HERE- 
FORD. 

Age,  one  year  and  six  months ; 
weight,  1,065  pounds;  gain  2.3 
pounds  per  day. 


INFERIOR      TYPE— GRADE 

HEREFORD. 

Age,  one  year  and  ten  months ; 
weight,  900  pounds ;  gain,  one 
peund  per  day. 


BEEF  TYPE.  125 

test.  These  tests  have  been  unsatisfactory  from  a 
feeding  point  of  view,  because  not  enough  individuals 
of  any  one  breed  were  used.  They  have  been  of  value, 
in  that  it  has  been  abundantly  shown  that  rapidity  of 
gains  is  a  question  of  type  and  condition,  not  of  breed. 
We  often  find  native  steers  with  strong,  vigorous  con- 
stitutions and  they  are  good  gainers,  at  least  for  a 
limited  period.  Steers  from  a  dairy  breed  like  the  Hol- 
stein-Friesian  usually  have  strong  assimilative  powers, 
and  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not  make  large 
daily  gains.  We  find  an  occasional  Jersey  of  good 
feeding  capacity.  Most  individuals  of  this  breed,  how- 
ever, are  of  more  delicate  constitution  and  do  not  re- 
spond so  well  in  the  feed-lot.  In  a  recent  test  at  the 
Nebraska  Experiment  Station,  grade  Angus  and  Here- 
ford steers  two  years  old  gained  75  pounds  per  month, 
while  Jerseys  of  the  same  age,  fed  in  the  same  way, 
inferior  in  type,  gained  but  50  pounds  per  month.  The 
beef  steers  required  7>^  pounds  of  grain  for  one  pound 
of  increase,  while  the  Jersey  steers  consumed  8^ 
pounds  of  grain  for  one  pound  of  increase  in  weight. 
This  much  is  true :  there  are  many  more  desirable  feed- 
ing types  to  be  found  in  the  improved  beef 
breeds  than  in  dairy  breeds  or  natives  of  unknown 
breedings. 

On  this  subject  of  the  relation  of  type  to  gaining 
capacity  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  has  re- 
cently furnished  the  most  satisfactory  and  reliable 
data  yet  found.  Six  different  market  grades,  16  in 
each  lot,  were  fed  the  same  rations.  These  were 
what  are  called  fancy,  choice,  good,  medium,  com- 
mon and  inferior.  Unfortunately,  some  classes 
were  considerably  heavier  than  others,  which 
puts  them  at  a  disadvantage  and  therefore  gives 
us  less  satisfactory  results  for  a  comparison  of  each 
of  the  six  grades.  But  for  a  comparison  of  the  two 
principal  classes,  good  and  common,  we  have  valuable 


126        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

data.  The  average  initial  weight  of  the  48  steers  of 
the  three  best  grades,  fancy,  choice  and  good,  was 
1,022.8  pounds  each.  The  average  weight  of  the  48 
steers  of  the  three  poor  classes,  called  medium,  com- 
mon  and  inferior,  was  984  pounds  each.  We  thus  see 
that  if  there  is  any  advantage  on  account  of  lighter 
weights  to  begin  with,  it  is.  in  favor  of  the  common 
steers.  The  average  daily  gain  of  the  good  steers  was 
2.48  pounds  per  day;  of  the  common  steers,  2.10 
pounds  per  day.  The  good  steers  consumed  11.37 
pounds  of  dry  matter  for  one  pound  of  increase  in 
weight,  while  the  common  steers  consumed  12.66 
pounds  of  dry  matter  for  one  pound  of  increase. 
This  was  n  per  cent  larger  gains  in  favor  of  the 
good  steers  over  the  inferior  from  the  same  weight 
of  food  consumed. 

Early  maturity  means  the  tendency  of  an  indi- 
vidual to  become  sufficiently  fat  at  an  early  age  to 
satisfy  the  demands  of  the  market.  The  importance 
of  this  will  be  better  understood  by  giving  a  few 
figures.  If  an  average  steer  is  well  fed  with  grain 
from  the  age  of  twelve  months  to  the  completion  of  his 
third  year,  he  will  gain,  as  a  yea-ding,  about  two 
pounds  per  day;  as  a  two-year-old,  about  ij^ 
pounds  per  day;  and  as  a  three-year-old,  il/2  pounds 
per  day.  He  therefore  makes  the  largest  daily 
gain  in  early  life  and  makes  it  on  less  food.  If,  how- 
ever, we  compare  a  thin  two-year-old  with  a  thin 
yearling,  we  shall  find  the  former  capable  of  making 
the  heavier  gains,  though  less  economically.  Avera- 
ging six  different  trials  where  accurate  records  were 
kept  of  gains  and  cost  of  food,  it  is  found  that 
during  the  first  12  months  each  100  pounds  of 
increase  in  weight  costs  $3.45  ;  the  second  12  months 
in  the  same  animal,  $7.42 ;  and  the  third  12  months, 
$11.50.  It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that  if  a  steer  can 
be  made  ripe  for  market  before  he  reaches  the 


BEEF  TYPE.  127 

age  of  three  years,  the  profits  will  be  co.nsiderably 
greater.  Some  steers,  no  matter  how  well  fed,  can- 
not be  made  sufficiently  fat  at  the  age  of  two  years. 
Their  increase  in  weight  is  in  the  nature  of  growth 
of  frame  rather  than  thickness  of  meat.  The  tendency 
to  mature  early  under  liberal  feeding  is  a  question  of 
type,  or  conformation. 

Twenty-five  years  ago  practically  no  beef  steers  were 
marketed  as  two-year-olds.  This  was  partly  because 
most  cattle  were  then  of  the  late-maturing  type  and 
could  not  be  made  sufficiently  fat  at  two  years,  and 
partly  because  the  markets  then  called  for  heavier  cat- 
tle. Today  the  well-rounded  i,2oo-pound  two-year-old 
commands  practically  as  high  a  price  per  pound  as  the 
large-framed  three-year-old  of  equal  flesh.  Because 
of  this  and  the  fact  that  the  younger  steers  are  more 
economical  feeders,  as  previously  shown,  it  is  impor- 
tant for  the  feeder  to  be  able  to  select  the  early-matur- 
ing kind.  On  the  range  and  in  the  farming  dis- 
tricts, we  find  both  the  early  and  late-maturing 
types,  although  during  recent  years  breeders  have 
been  selecting  for  earlier  maturity,  and  conse- 
quently there  are  many  more  individuals  of  that 
type  than  formerly. 

Exterior  Indications  of  Early  Maturity. — The 
feeding  steer  to  mature  early  must  be  compact  and 
blocky  in  build.  The  long-legged,  lanky  kind,  wide- 
spaced  from  hip  to  rib,  is  invariably  one  which  will 
require  an  extended  period  of  forced  feeding  to  be 
made  fat  enough  for  market.  Such  steers  in  a  feed-lot 
must  be  withdrawn  and  fed  longer,  or  sold  at  a  sacri- 
fice. If  they  are  fed  until  finished,  others  must  be 
carried  beyond  the  profitable  stage  for  marketing. 
The  shape  of  the  head  and  neck  is  often  a  help  in 
selecting  steers  for  early  maturity.  Usually  a  short, 
broad  head  and  short,  thick  neck  go  with  a  short, 
broad  body  and  short  legs.  It  is  always  the  low- 


128 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


BEEF  TYPE. 


129 


I3O          PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

down,  blocky  steers  which  mature  early.  In  some 
individuals  the  early-maturing  type  is  carried  to 
the  extreme,  in  which  case  there  is  often  a  lack  of 
size.  Such  individuals  are  most  profitable  when 
marketed  as  soon  as  fat,  regardless  of  size. 

Blocky  Steers  Easier  Keepers. — It  is  worthy  of 
note,  too,  that  the  blocky,  early-maturing  steers 
are  also  easier  keepers,  in  that  they  require  less 
grain  in  proportion  to  hay  for  laying  on  flesh  and 
keeping  in  good  condition.  This  is  well  shown  in 
the  records  of  12  low-down,  blocky,  Angus  steers 
marketed  by  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station. 
During  the  first  winter,  as  calves,  six  made  an  average 
gain  of  33  pounds  each  per  month  on  prairie  and  alfalfa 
hay,  without  grain.  The  remaining  six  gained  60 
pounds  per  month  on  but  four  pounds  of  mixed  grain 
each  per  day,  with  a  liberal  allowance  of  hay.  The 
following  summer  all  were  given  grass  only,  and 
the  second  winter  a  light  grain  ration.  They  were 
finished  with  grain  on  grass  the  next  summer,  and 
in  November,  at  the  age  of  29  months,  averaged 
1,480  pounds  each,  and  were  g*ood  enough  for 
Christmas  beeves.  During  the  two  years,  these 
steers  consumed  but  5.7  pounds  of  grain  for  one 
pound  of  increase  in  weight,  or  about  15  per  cent 
less  than  is  ordinarily  required  with  common 
grades. 

The  Ideal  Beef  Steer. — From  what  has  been  said 
on  butcher's  type  and  on  feeder's  type,  it  will  be 
seen  that  while  certain  qualities  are  desirable  from 
both  points  of  view,  there  are  other  qualities  in 
which  the  butcher  and  feeder  are  at  variance  in 
their  demands.  As  already  pointed  out,  the  feeder 
wants  a  steer  with  good  bone,  a  good  roomy  paunch 
and  deep,  broad  chest,  while  the  butcher  considers 
undue  development  in  such  parts  objectionable,  be- 
cause of  excessive  waste  and  too  large  a  proportion 


BEEF  TYPE. 


'Shamrock" — Grand  Champion  steer  at  the  Chicago  International 
Live  Stock  Exposition,  1902.  Iowa  Agricultural  College,  Ames, 
Iowa. 


'Clear  Lake  Jute" — Grand  Champion  steer,  Chicago  International 
Live  Stock  Exposition,  1904 — Reserve  Champion,  1903.  Uni- 
versity of  Minnesota. 


132        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

of  the  less  valuable  meat.  Giving  both  butcher  and 
feeder  due  consideration,  a  certain  standard  of  per- 
fection, called  "scale  of  points,"  has  been  adopted 
for  the  beef  steers,  in  which  each  part  of  the  animal 
is  given  a  numerical  value  according  to  its  impor- 
tance, the  whole  footing  100  per  cent  for  what 
would  be  a  perfect  animal.  The  following,  sug- 
gested by  Craig,  is  in  use  among  most  agricul- 
tural colleges.  The  writer  has  submitted  it  to 
the  leading  judges  of  England,  Scotland  and  Amer- 
ica. Some  have  suggested  slight  changes ;  others 
make  none.  It  is  quite  possible  that  somewhat 
more  importance  should  be  given  to  chest,  rump 
and  thigh,  although  these  parts  are  all  included  in 
"form,"  which  is  given  10  points. 

Score-card  for  Beef  Steer — 

General  appearance: 

Weight,  according  to  age 10 

Form,  straight  top  line  and  underline;  deep,  broad,  low 

set,  stylish   10 

Quality,  firm  handling,  hair  fine,  pliable  skin,  dense  bone, 

evenly  fleshed    10 

Condition,  deep  even  covering  of  firm  flesh,  especially  in 

regions  of  valuable  cuts 10 

Head  and  neck: 

Muzzle  broad,  mouth  large,  jaw  wide,  nostrils  large....  1 

Eyes  large,  clear,  placid 1 

Face  short,  quiet  expression 1 

Forehead   broad,   full    1 

Ears  medium  size,  fine  texture 1 

Horns,  fine  texture,  oval,  medium  size 1 

Neck  thick,  short,  throat  clean 1 

Forequarters : 

Shoulder  vein,   full    2 

Shoulders,  covered  with  flesh,  compact  on  top,  smooth ....  2 

Brisket  advanced,  breast  wide 1 

Dewlap,  skin  not  too  loose  and  drooping 1 

Legs  straight,  short;  arm  full,  shank  fine,  smooth 2 

Body: 

Chest,  full,  deep,  wide,  girth  large,  crops  full 4 

Eibs,   long,   arched,   thickly  fleshed 8 

Back,  broad,  straight,  smooth,  even 10 

Loin,  thick,  broad   (. 8 

Flank,  full,  even  with  underline 2 


BEEF  TYf  E.  133 

Hindquarters : 

Hips,  smoothly  covered,  distance  apart  in  proportion  with 

other   parts    2 

Eump,  long,  wide,  even,  tail  head  smooth,  not  patchy.  ...  2 

Pin  bones,  not  prominent,  far  apart 1 

Thighs,  full,  deep,  wide 2 

Twist,    deep,    plump 2 

Purse,   full,  indicating  fleshiness 2 

Legs,   straight,  short,  shank  fine,  smooth 2 

Total  , 100 

The  score-card,  while  of  no  particular  use  to  an 
experienced  and  competent  judge  in  making  show 
ring  awards,  is  of  value  to  the  amateur  in  mak- 
ing a  detailed  examination  of  an  animal.  By  its 
use  he  learns  the  relative  importance  of  the  various 
parts  of  the  animal  and  becomes  more  familiar  with 
what  constitutes  ideal  beef  type.  After  the  correct 
type  is  fairly  well  fixed  in  mind,  its  further  use  is 
not  recommended.  More  can  then  be  accomplished 
by  close  comparisons  of  individuals  without  re- 
ferring to  a  score-card. 

To  a  man  conducting  feeding  operations,  a  fair 
conception  of  what  constitutes  the  most  desirable 
type  in  beef  cattle  is  of  the  utmost  value.  In  buy- 
ing feeders  on  the  market,  where  the  assortment 
is  large  and  prices  asked  for  different  lots  are  ex- 
tremely variable,  injudicious  purchases  are  easily 
possible,  and  are  often  made.  Sometimes  too  much 
is  paid  for  the  choicer  grades,  when  the  less  desir- 
able kinds  are  offered  at  a  price  below  their  real 
value.  Usually  the  better  grades  are  more  profita- 
ble in  the  end,  even  at  prices  somewhat  higher. 
This  is  particularly  true  when  feed  is  high-priced. 
When  a  purchase  is  made,  the  privilege  is  often 
given  the  buyer  to  cull  out  a  stated  number.  Ina- 
bility to  discover  the  most  undesirable  individuals 
in  a  lot,  will  result  in  a  useless  scaling  of  profits 
from  feeding. 


134        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

The  Selection  of  a  Herd  Bull  for  Dairy  Herd 
of  Grade  Cows. — While  we  have  been  depending 
very  largely  upon  the  range  country  for  our  feed- 
ing steers,  many  cattle  are  now  being  both  grown 
and  fattened  on  farming  lands.  In  order  that  we 
may  breed  good  cattle  for  feeding  purposes,  it  is 
highly  important  that  we  give  to  the  selection  of 
the  herd  bull  the  consideration  it  deserves.  Since 
"Like  begets  like"  is  a  fundamental  law  of  breed- 
ing, we  must  naturally  seek  in  the  herd  bull  the 
same  general  type  that  is  most  desirable  in  the 
market  steer.  We  could  hardly  expect  broad- 
backed,  thick-quartered  steers  from  fish-backed, 
peaked  bulls,  nor  a  low-down,  early-maturing  type 
from  a  rangy  sire.  Whatever,  then,  has  been  said 
concerning  the  desirable  form  for  the  steer  will  ap- 
ply as  strongly  to  the  bull. 

Prepotency. — But  no  matter  how  perfect  a  bull 
may  be  in  form,  if  he  fails  to  transmit  his  characters 
to  his  offspring  he  is  not  a  satisfactory  animal. 
To  be  prepotent  he  must  have  been  bred  pure  for 
several  generations,  or  until  the  characters  are  fair- 
ly well  fixed — the  longer  he  has  been  bred  pure 
the  more  firmly  fixed  are  his  characters.  A  grade 
or  cross-bred  bull  seldom  has  firmly  established 
characters,  and  therefore  will  not  ordinarily  re- 
produce his  type  with  any  degree  of  certainty.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  line  bred,  or  inbred,  bull  is  likely 
to  be  very  prepotent,  because  his  breeding  has  been 
confined  not  only  to  one  breed,  but  to  a  certain 
family  in  that  breed.  Close  inbreeding,  however, 
is  not  usually  to  be  recommended  in  pure-bred 
herds,  because  it  may  result  finally  in  a  weakened 
constitution  and  oftentimes  barrenness.  For  cross- 
ing upon  grade  cows,  a  bull  of  moderate  inbreeding, 
good  in  conformation,  is  rather  to  be  preferred. 

There   are  certain   external   characters    denoting 


BEEF  TYPE. 


136  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

masculinity  in  individuals,  which  also  indicate  pre- 
potency. They  are:  a  strong,  broad  head;  a  full, 
bright  eye,  showing  vivacity;  curly  hair  about  the 
face;  a  thick,  strong  neck  with  a  well-developed 
crest ;  strong  shoulders ;  and  a  broad  chest.  A  pure- 
bred bull,  possessing  these  strongly  masculine  char- 
acters, bred  to  grade  or  mixed  bred  cows,  is  more 
than  half  the  herd,  because  the  offspring  from  such 
a  mating  are  likely  to  resemble  the  sire  much  more 
than  the  dam  on  account  of  his  greater  prepotency. 
This  is  a  matter  which  is  too  often  overlooked  in 
purchasing  a  bull.  If  a  grade  bull  can  be  bought 
tor  a  small  sum  there  is  a  temptation  to  reject  the 
more  costly  pure-bred.  One  hundred  and  fifty  dol- 
lars more  invested  in  a  good  pure-bred  bull  means 
a  cost  of  one  dollar  more  per  calf,  assuming  that 
the  bull  gets  thirty  calves  per  year  for  a  period  of 
five  years.  This  is  rather  an  insignificant  sum  in 
comparison  with  the  increased  value  of  a  calf  from 
such  a  sire.  A  pure-bred  bull,  inferior  in  type,  is 
for  the  same  reason  worse  than  a  mixed-bred  of 
the  same  type,  because  more  of  his  calves  are  likely 
to  be  inferior.  No  one,  whether  ranchman  or 
farmer,  with  a  fair-sized  herd  of  cows,  should  be 
content  with  anything  less  than  a  pure-bred  bull  of 
good  conformation  and  quality,  whether  it  be  a 
Shorthorn,  Hereford,  Angus  or  Galloway.  The 
choice  of  breeds  will  depend  more  upon  locality, 
and  is  less  important  than  the  selection  of  a  good 
individual. 

The  Profitable  "Farmer's  Cow."— In  farming  dis- 
tricts, where  land  is  high  priced,  the  dairy  cow  is 
rapidly  growing  in  popular  favor.  In  fact,  it  is 
now  generally  admitted  that  anywhere  outside  the 
so-called  grazing  territory,  or  range,  a  grade  cow 
to  be  profitable  must  be  a  good  milker,  as  it  does 
not  pay  to  keep  a  cow  one  year  for  the  calf  she 


BEEF  TYPE. 


137 


Shorthorn  bull — "Choice  Goods" — an  American  and  English  cham- 
pion and  a  noted  breeding  sire.  Tebo  Land  and  Cattle  Com- 
pany, Clinton,  Missouri. 


Hereford   bull — "Prime    Lad."      An    American    champion. 
Van  Natta  &  Sons,  Fowler,  Indiana. 


W.    H. 


138        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

produces,  unless  it  be  in  a  locality  where  farming 
land  is  best  suited  for  pasturing  purposes.  The 
butter  or  cheese  made  from  a  good  cow  amounts 
to  $40  or  $50  per  year,  which,  deducting  the  cost  of 
labor,  much  more  than  pays  for  the  feed  she  con- 
sumes. But  cows  pre-eminently  suited  for  economical 
milk  production  are  not  satisfactory  beef  producers, 
nor  are  the  calves  when  such  cows  are  bred  to 
dairy  bulls,  as  has  been  shown.  Since  a  good  cow, 
properly  handled,  may  be  milked  with  profit  for  a 
period  of  at  least  eight  years,  and  during  this  time 
will  produce,  upon  an  average,  four  heifer  calves, 
it  is  apparent  that  for  maintaining  a  dairy  herd 
of  cows,  only  one-fourth  the  cow  herd  need  be  bred 
each  year  to  a  dairy  bull,  or  the  entire  herd  may  be 
bred  to  such  a  bull  once  in  four  years.  All  other 
calves  are  available  for  beef  production  and  should 
be  sired  by  a  beef  bull. 

Bulls  of  Extreme  Beef  Tendencies  Most  Suitable 
for  Beef  Calves  from  Dairy  Cows. — It  is  important 
in  selecting  a  beef  bull  that  he  should  carry  the 
type  to  the  extreme,  in  order  to  cover  up,  as  it 
were,  the  dairy  type  of  the  dam.  He  should  be 
extremely  low  set,  closely  coupled,  broad  over  the 
back  and  loin,  wide  and  deep  quartered  and  natu- 
rally thick-fleshed,  possessing  in  a  marked  degree 
easy  keeping  qualities.  A  mixed-bred,  heavy-milk- 
ing cow  mated  with  such  a  bull  will  produce  a 
calf  which,  if  not  the  choicest  beef  type,  will  be 
found  entirely  satisfactory  in  the  feed  lot — quite 
above  the  average  range  steer. 

The  writer's  experience  upon  a  farm,  where  such 
a  system  is  still  in  practice,  has  been  limited  to  the 
use  of  pure-bred  Shorthorn  and  Angus  bulls  upon 
grade  Shorthorn  and  Holstein  milch  cows.  The 
results  were  most  satisfactory  with  a  low-down, 
compact,  pure  Scotch  Shorthorn  bull  and  an  Angus 


BEEF  TYPE.  139 

bull  of  the  same  type.  A  large  number  of  the  cows 
produced  enough  milk  to  suckle  two  calves  each, 
for  a  period  of  five  months,  and  a  third  calf  the 
remaining  five  months.  A  part  of  the  herd  acted  in 
this  capacity,  the  larger  portion  of  the  milk  being 
used  for  cheese  making.  Calves  so  handled  are 
very  good  for  the  production  of  baby  beef;  and, 
with  a  large  herd  of  dairy  cows  to  consume  the 
roughness,  the  method  of  heavy  grain  feeding  to 
be  pursued  with  the  calves  for  the  production  of 
baby  beef  is  a  most  satisfactory  one.  The  heifer 
calves  from  such  sires  are  also  fed  out  for  young 
beef,  rather  than  reserved  for  dairy  purposes,  be- 
cause of  their  beef  tendencies.  Old  cows  are  re- 
placed from  outside  sources,  or  a  few  of  the  best 
milkers  are  bred  annually  to  a  dairy  bull,  vealing  all 
male  calves  from  such  matings. 

The  Angus  bull  now  in  service  has  produced 
three  crops  of  calves,  all  black  or  dark  gray  in 
color,  and  with  but  one  out  of  ninety  having  horns, 
though  several  had  small  rudimentary  ones  about 
one  inch  in  length.  These  calves ,  were  mostly 
from  grade  Shorthorn  cows  leaning  toward  the 
dairy  type.  The  heifers  in  the  first  crop  sold 
in  the  fall,  as -yearlings  finished  on  blue  grass, 
at  $4.50  per  hundred,  while  the  steers  were  grain 
fed  as  "long  yearlings,"  weighing,  at  23  months, 
1,200  pounds  each,  and  bringing  $6.10  on  the 
market,  or  15  cents  below  top  prices  for  heavy 
cattle. 

At  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  a  Short- 
horn-Jersey cow  which  produced  375  pounds  of 
butter  per  year  for  five  years,  when  bred  to  a  pure- 
bred Hereford  bull  gave  birth  to  a  calf  which 
weighed  1,300  pounds  at  22  months  of  age,  fairly 
good  in  type,  though  peaked  behind.  The  following 
year  from  an  Angus  bull  the  cow  produced  a  calf 


I4O  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

which  weighed  1,200  at  21  months  of  age,  better  in 
type  than  the  Hereford;  and  a  year  later  from  a 
Shorthorn  sire,  a  calf  weighing  1,250  at  21  months, 
equal  in  quality  to  the  Angus,  both  being  broad 
behind  and  fairly  well  covered,  though  less  thickly 
than  high  grade  steers  of  the  beef  breeds — good 
enough,  however,  to  sell  near  the  top  of  the  market. 

Calves  from  Jersey  cows  bred  to  beef  bulls  are 
less  satisfactory  for  beef  production  than  are  those 
from  other  dairy  breeds.  Such  cows  are  small  in 
size,  less  robust  in  constitution,  and  it  is  quite  im- 
possible to  produce  anything  but  peaked  hind  quar- 
ters, so  objectionable  to  the  feeder.  If  the  Jersey 
cow  has  considerable  blood  of  another  breed  the 
calves  are  likely  to  be  better  for  beef  purposes.  It 
is  not  unusual  for  grade  Shorthorn  cows  of  dairy 
conformation  to  give  twenty  quarts  of  milk  per  day. 
Such  cows  are  excellent  for  producing  beef  calves, 
when  bred  to  blocky,  thick-fleshed  bulls.  The  Hoi- 
stein  cow  is  our  heaviest  milker.  She  is  also  large 
in  scale,  strong  in  constitution,  and  active  in  assimi- 
lative powers.  When  pure  she  is  unusually  persis- 
tent in  transmitting  her  own  characters  to  off- 
spring. A  grade  Holstein  cow,  however,  bred  to 
a  beefy  bull,  usually  produces  a  fairly  good  feeding 
animal,  though  later  maturing  and  coarser  than  the 
Shorthorn.  It  was  a  common  Shorthorn-Holstein 
grade  cow,  bred  to  an  extraordinary  pure-bred 
Hereford  bull,  which  produced  Challenger,  the  In- 
ternational Champion  steer  for  1903.  While  this  is 
more  than  should  be  expected  from  such  a  cow,  it 
could  hardly  be  called  accidental  on  her  part,  since 
she  produced  the  following  year  another  calf  from 
the  same  bull,  which  won  second  place  in  a  strong 
class  of  grade  steers  at_the  International  show. 

The  Iowa  Experiment  Station,  in  making  a  sum- 
mary of  results  as  published  in  Bulletin  48,  issued 


BEEF  TYPE.  14! 

in  1900,  says  concerning  the  combining  of  dairying 
and  beef  making: 

"r.  From  the  results  so  far  obtained  through 
these  trials  it  is  evident  that  a  system  whereby 
dairying  and  meat  making  may  be  combined  is  the 
most  promising  in  profits.  Not  only  do  the  steers 
from  cows  bred  with  this  combination  in  view  yield 
as  much  profit  as  those  from  the  range,  but  the 
cows  when  used  for  dairy  purposes  make  profitable 
returns. 

"2.  The  data  secured  through  the  actual  work  of 
establishing  a  herd  of  this  kind  and  the  actual  test  of 
the  cows  in  the  dairy  and  steers  in  the  feed-lot  show 
that  it  is  not  only  possible  to  combine  these  qualities 
to  a  profitable  degree,  but  also  to  perpetuate  them  if 
the  herd  is  bred  especially  for  them. 

"3.  In  the  commercial  production  of  beef 
through  a  combination  of  dairying  and  beef  mak- 
ing it  is  necessary  that  the  calves  are  removed  from 
their  dams  when  two  or  three  days  old  so  as  to  develop 
and  preserve  the  milking  qualities  of  the  cows." 


Angus  bull — "Bugler."  Showing  extreme  development  of  masculine 
character.  Very  blocky,  and  useful  for  producing  beef  calves 
from  dairy  cows.  University  of  Nebraska. 


142 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

SHELTER  AND  FEED-LOT  FACILITIES  FOR 
BEEF  CATTLE. 

The  shelter  problem  in  cattle  feeding  is  of  im- 
portance, since  it  influences  materially  the  cost 
of  producing  beef.  When  it  is  understood  that  the 
temperature  of  the  animal  body  under  normal  con- 
ditions is  98°  Fahrenheit,  it  is  apparent  that  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  day's  ration  must  go  to  pro- 
duce heat,  much  of  which  is  constantly  leaving  the 
body  by  radiation  from  the  surface.  This  loss  is 
most  rapid  when  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  con- 
siderably below  the  normal  temperature  of  the 
body.  On  cold  winter  days,  for  example,  when 
the  body  is  fully  exposed,  the  loss  is  very  great, 
and  there  is  in  consequence  a  heavier  draft  upon 
the  food  for  fuel  purposes.  Cattle  are  endowed 
by  nature  with  a  thick  skin  and  a  good  coat  'of 
hair  to  check  this  loss  of  heat  by  radiation,  and  this 
protection  during  moderate  weather  is  sufficient. 
Then,  too,  after  having  been  fed  for  beef  for  some 
time  cattle  have  more  or  less  fat  distributed  over  the 
body  just  underneath  the  skin,  and  this  gives  addi- 
tional protection.  Such  cattle  generate  more  or  less 
heat  as  a  by-product,  as  it  were,  during  the  rapid  as- 
similation of  food,  which  serves  to  warm  the  body, 
more  especially  when  the  ration  is  highly  carbonaceous. 
Because  of  this  fact,  if  fattening  cattle  are  confined 
in  closed  barns,  as  is  sometimes  practiced — particu- 
larly in  Eastern  States — they  are  likely  to  be  un- 
comfortably warm — too  warm  for  a  good  appetite 
and  large  gains.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Western 

'43 


144  PROFITABLE   STOCK    FEEDING. 

practice  of  feeding  cattle  outdoors,  unprotected  in 
any  way,  requires  the  consumption  of  considerable 
food  solely  for  the  purpose  of  heat  lost  by  ex- 
cessive radiation,  which  food  is  far  more  costly 
than  shelter. 

The  Missouri  Shelter  Tests. — The  Missouri  Ex- 
periment Station  during  several  successive  winters 
conducted  tests  to  determine  the  influence  of  shel- 
ter upon  gains.  Each  winter  two-year-old  steers 
were  divided  into  three  lots ;  one  was  provided  with 
a  closed  but  well-ventilated  barn,  another  with  a 
shed  closed  on  all  sides  except  the  south,  and 
a  third  with  an  open  yard,  a  tight  fence  being  the 
only  protection.  These  cattle  were  all  cared  for  in 
exactly  the  same  way,  each  lot  being  given  a  ration 
consisting  of  corn  and  timothy  hay  and  those  in  the 
barn  allowed  the  run  of  a  yard  on  pleasant  days.  The 
average  results  for  each  steer  in  the  several  lots  were 
as  follows:  the  average  daily  gain  per  steer  in  the 
closed  barn  was  1.7  pounds,  in  the  shed  1.92  pounds, 
and  in  the  open  yard  2.05  pounds.  The  barn  steers 
consumed  10.6  pounds  of  corn  for  each  pound  of  gain, 
the  shed  steers  10.4  pounds,  and  the  open  yard  steers 
9.98  pounds.  Combining  both  hay  and  grain,  the  barn 
steers  consumed  14.79  pounds  of  feed  for  one  pound 
of  gain,  the  shed  steers  14.12  pounds,  and  the  open 
yard  steers  14.22  pounds.  The  results  show  in  favor 
of  the  shed  and  open  yard  steers  as  compared  with 
the  steers  fed  in  the  barn.  The  difference  in  favor 
of  the  shed  steers  in  this  series  of  experiments  is  hardly 
great  enough  to  pay  for  building  sheds.  Had  the  ration 
been  a  balanced  one  instead  of  being  excessively 
starchy,  the  result  would  undoubtedly  have  been 
still  more  favorable  for  the  use  of  the  shed  as  com- 
pared with  the  open  yard.  Corn  and  timothy  hay 
were  used,  because  that  combination  is  one  common- 
ly fed  in  Missouri.  Director  Waters,  the  experi- 


SHELTER  FACILITIES  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE.  145 

menter,  says:  "While  the  difference  between  the 
gains  of  the  bunches  in  the  open  shed  and  the  open 
lot  do  not  indicate  a  large  advantage  in  favor  of 
the  open  shed,  yet  from  every  point  of  view  it 
seems  fair  to  say  that  where  much  winter  feeding 
is  to  be  done  it  will  be  profitable  to  provide  suit- 
able shelter  for  the  cattle,  the  feed  and  the  manure, 
and  particularly  to  give  the  cattle  a  dry  place  on 
which ;  to  lie.  From  these  experiments  it  does  not 
appear  to  be  necessary  or  profitable  to  attempt  to 
make  such  quarters  warm."  In  a  Kansas  test  10  per 
cent  of  the  feed  was  saved  by  providing  an  open  shed. 
The  Pennsylvania  experiments  also  show  in  favor  of 
shelter.  As  a  result  of  several  thousand  letters  of  in- 
quiry sent  out  by  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station 
to  cattle  feeders  in  Missouri,  Illinois,  Iowa  and 
Nebraska,  it  was  found  that  17.6  per  cent  of  those  re- 
sponding favored  the  closed  barn,  59.2  per  cent  the 
open  shed  and  23.2  per  cent  the  open  lot.  From  the 
investigations  in  Missouri  and  other  States  it  is  ap- 
parent that  there  is  danger  of  overhousing  as  well  as 
underhousing  fattening  cattle.  Such  cattle  are  not 
likely  to  be  uncomfortable,  even  during  cold 
weather,  so  long  a*s  they  are  protected  from  cold 
winds  and  have  a  dry  bed.  The  latter  is  more 
necessary  than  is  ordinarily  supposed  and  a  roof 
is  no  doubt  worth  more  than  its  cost  for  this  pur- 
pose. It  would  seem  that  in  the  Northern  States 
especially,  some  sort  of  a  shed  open  on  the  side 
opposite  prevailing  winds  is  most  satisfactory  for 
fattening  cattle. 

Shelter  for  Stock  Cattle. — For  stock  cattle  the  sit- 
uation is  different.  They-  are  not  crowded  with 
grain  and  do  not  have  so  much  fat  for  protection.  A 
small  animal  also  presents  a  larger  surface  in  propor- 
tion to  weight  than  does  a  larger  one,  making  the  loss 
of  heat  from  radiation  relatively  greater.  The  Mis- 


146        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

souri  Experiment  Station  carried  on  shelter  tests  with 
stock  cattle  as  well  as  fattening  cattle.  -  In  com- 
menting upon  the  results  of  the  test  with  light 
cattle  in  contrast  with  fattening  cattle,  Director 
Waters  says:  "We  have  carried  on  this  experi- 
ment for  four  years  with  yearlings,  one  winter 
feeding  them  on  hay  only  and  three  winters  on  a 
small  quantity  of  corn  and  what  timothy  hay  they 
would  eat.  The  result  was  altogether  the  other 
way.  The  bunch  in  the  barn  came  out  in  the 
best  condition  by  far,  with  a  better  coat,  etc.  It  would 
be  the  same  way  with  any  other  class  of  cattle  if 
due  care  is  taken  not  to  overhouse  and  to  keep  their 
quarters  well  ventilated."  Young  cattle,  especially 
when  fed  largely  upon  hay,  need  shelter  closed  on  all 
sides,  with  enough  open  doors  on  one  side  to  permit 
them  to  pass  in  and  out  at  will.  There  should  be 
enough  openings  to  give  good  ventilation  at  all  times. 

Location  of  the  Feed-lot. — In  choosing  a  loca- 
tion for  the  feed-lot,  attention  should  be  given  to 
drainage  and  natural  protection.  Whenever  possi- 
ble, the  yard  should  be  situated  on  a  south  slope,  so 
that  water  will  drain  off  quickly  after  a  rain  and  the 
ground  will  receive  the  full  benefit  of  the  sun's 
rays.  Muddy  yards  are  not  conducive  to  good 
gains.  This  is  a  matter  of  common  observation 
among  feeders  during  winters  when  there  is  con- 
siderable rainfall.  Experiment  station  records  also 
show  that  monthly  gains  made  when  yards  are 
muddy  are  considerably  below  the  monthly  gains 
made  when  yards  are  dry.  In  some  cases  the  soil  is 
sufficiently  open  to  permit  the  rapid  percolation  of 
water  downward,  while  in  other  localities  the  soil  is 
so  nearly  impervious  that  pools  form  at  the  surface, 
or  the  water  mixes  with  the  clay  to  make  a  most  dis- 
agreeable mud.  At  the  Illinois  Station,  where  such 


SHELTER  FACILITIES  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE.  147 

a  condition  exists,  paving  was  found  to  be  entirely 
practicable. 

Bedding,  whether  in  barn  or  lots,  should  be  used 
liberally,  because  it  not  only  adds  materially  to  the 
comfort  of  the  animals,  but  it  actually  saves  feed. 
One  who  has  scattered  a  load  of  straw  in  a  bare 
feed-lot  will  vouch  for  the  statement  that  cattle  are 
quick  to  lie  down  and  rest  when  encouraged  to  do 
so.  A  condition  of  mud  or  frozen  clods  in  the 
yards  is  greatly  improved  by  using  straw  liberally. 
If  it  is  thrown  in  one  place,  that  spot  becomes  ele- 
vated and  furnishes  a  dry  and  comfortable  bed. 
A  well-fed  steer  lying  contentedly  upon  his  side  is 
making  the  best  possible  use  of  the  feed  in  his 
stomach.  He  will  not  lie  down  in  mud  and  filth 
until  forced  by  exhaustion  to  do  so.  Standing  or 
walking  means  an  unnecessary  muscular  exertion, 
which  requires  food.  Fattening  cattle  should  be 
kept  as  quiet  as  possible.  No  better  use  can  be 
made  of  wheat  straw  or  refuse  hay  and  stalks  than 
to  scatter  them  about  for  bedding,  where  such  ma- 
terial will  also  serve  as  an  absorbent  of  liquid 
manure. 

Salt  should  be  given  regularly  to  all  kinds  of  cat- 
tle. To  make  sure  that  enough  is  supplied  to  meet 
physiological  requirements  it  is  advisable  to  keep  it 
before  them  at  all  times.  A  box  of  salt  may  be  nailed 
to  the  side  of  the  fence  where  cattle  will  have  free 
access  to  it,  or,  better  still,  underneath  the  shed, 
where  it  will  keep  dry.  When  supplied  in  this  way 
cattle  will  not  eat  more  than  is  good  for  them,  unless 
the  box  is  allowed  to  become  empty  for  a  time.  If 
cattle  become  hungry  for  salt,  they  are  greedy  and 
eat  so  much  that  the  tissues  are  made  dry,  owing 
to  the  strong  affinity  of  salt  for  water;  this  causes 
such  intense  thirst  that  water  in  excess  is  imbibed 
to  the  detriment  of  digestion  and  assimilation. 


148  PROFITABLE   STOCK   FEEDING. 

Ground  rock  or  common  pulverized  salt  is  prefer- 
able to  rock  salt,  though  the  latter  is  preferred 
by  some  for  cattle  on  pasture,  because  it  is  not 
dissolved  by  rains.  The  chief  objection  to  the 
latter  is  that  cattle  are  required  to  spend  too  much 
time  licking  the  rock,  which  time  would  be  better 
spent"  eating  grass.  Another  objection  to  rock  salt 
is  that  its  rough  surface  may  cause  the  tongue  to 
become  sore.  For  summer  feeding,  a  box  of  com- 
mon salt  kept  underneath  a  swinging  cover  or  a 
roof  built  at  some  central  point  in  the  pasture  is 
most  satisfactory,  although  regular  salting  once  a 
week  is  not  a  bad  practice,  inasmuch  as  cattle  on 
grass  without  grain  are  sometimes  left  unobserved 
for  long  periods,  when  they  should  be  counted  and 
otherwise  inspected  at  frequent  intervals. 

Pure  water  should  be  made  accessible  to  cattle 
both  winter  and  summer.  The  system  calls  for  water 
to  serve  in  the  elaboration  of  animal  compounds  and 
to  transport  these  compounds  from  place  to  place  in 
the  body.  Tissues  must  always  be  kept  moist.  A 
large  quantity  of  water  leaves  the  animal  with  the 
breath  and  must  be  replaced.  The  water  always 
present  in  foodstuffs  is  not  sufficient  to  meet  de- 
mands, and  more  must  be  supplied  from  outside 
sources.  Animals  never  drink  too  much  water  under 
normal  conditions.  They  will  not  drink  enough  for 
best  gains  if  the  water  is  in  any  way  offensive,  hence 
the  importance  of  pure  water.  In  cold  weather  cattle 
do  not,  as  a  rule,  drink  enough,  because  of  the  chill- 
ing effects  of  ice  cold  water.  This  is  especially  true 
with  stock  cattle  and  dairy  cows.  The  milch  cow, 
as  already  mentioned,  must  be  given  every  possible 
inducement  to  drink  freely,  because  in  the  elabora- 
tion of  milk  compounds  more  water  is  needed  than 
in  the  elaboration  of  meat  compounds.  The  tank 


SHELTER  FACILITIES  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE.  149 

heaters   described  for  dairy   cows   are   also   useful 
for  steers  during  freezing  weather. 

Dipping  for  lice,  mange,  etc.,  is  preferably  done 
when  cattle  first  go  into  the  feed-lot,  if  done  at  all, 
because  a  lighter  shrinkage  follows.  In  localities 
where  such  troubles  are  common,  it  is  wise  to  em- 
ploy this  safeguard.  With  a  good  dipping  plant 
the  process  can  be  made  a  short  one  and  any  of  the 
approved  dipping  solutions,  whether  the  sulphur- 
lime  or  coal  tar  preparations,  may  be  purchased  at 
a  small  cost. 


A  pair  of  good  backs — "Challenger  II"  and  "Stanton,"   University 
of  Nebraska. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

BABY  BEEF. 

In  discussing  the  details  of  feeding  for  beef  it  is 
taken  for  granted  that  the  reader  has  gone  over  the 
chapters  on  general  principles  in  feeding  all  classes 
of  live  stock  and  those  chapters  on  feeding  the  dairy 
cow.  Feeding  the  cow  logically  precedes  feeding, 
the  steer,  and  whatever  was  said  concerning  foods 
for  the  dairy  cow  applies  in  a  general  way  to  beef 
cattle,  and  should  first  be  given  consideration  by 
the  reader. 

In  feeding  for  beef,  the  system  to  be  practiced 
will  depend  upon  the  locality,  and  to  some  extent 
upon  the  season.  In  some  sections  the  soil  and 
climate  are  especially  favorable  for  the  production 
of  grass  and  hay,  but  less  so  for  corn,  making  the 
latter  high  in  price;  or  feeding  for  pork  may  be 
carried  on  so  extensively  in  some  localities  as  to 
make  grain  in  demand  at  strong  prices  and  rough- 
ness a  drug  on  the  market.  In  other  sections 
grain  may  be  reasonably  low  and  rough  feed  high 
in  price.  The  season  is  a  factor  in  any  locality  in 
so  far  as  it  affects  prices  on  foodstuffs  from  year  to 
year,  necessitating  the  exercise  of  business  sagacity 
in  the  use  of  those  foodstuffs  which  go  the  farthest 
for  the  money. 

Feeding  for  beef  resolves  itself  into  two  general 
methods :  the  production  of  early  fattened  beef,  which 
is  called  "baby  beef"  when  carried  to  the  extreme,  and 
the  production  of  older  beef  by  a  larger  use  of  rough- 
ness and  a  more  gradual  process  of  grain  feeding. 

Arguments    for    Baby    Beef. — On    those    farms 
150 


BABY  BEEF.  Igl 

where  roughness  can  be  profitably  used  in  other 
ways,  the  production  of  early  beef  has  two  distinct 
advantages. 

I.  Young  stock  require  less  food  for  a  given 
gain  than  older  stock.  Records  show  that  for  each 
succeeding  year  up  to  the  age  of  three  or  four  years 
nearly  50  per  cent  more  food  is  required  for  a  given 
increase  in  weight  than  was  required  the  year  previous. 
Much  of  this  difference  is  no  doubt  due  to  the  fact 
that  as  the  steer  grows  older  and  larger,  he  also  be- 
comes heavier  in  flesh,  which  always  means  smaller 
gains  from  a  given  weight  of  food.  At  the  Illinois 
Experiment  Station  in  1904  one  car-load  each  of 
range-bred  calves,  yearlings  and  two-year-olds  was 
purchased  from  Wyoming.  None  having  been  ac- 
customed to  grain,  they  were  therefore  uniformly 
thin  in  flesh.  Each  lot  was  given  the  same  kind 
of  food,  viz.,  corn  which  had  been  run  through  an 
ensilage  cutter,  cotton-seed  meal,  alfalfa  hay  and 
some  oat  straw  and  shredded  corn  stover.  De- 
ducting the  pork  produced,  the  net  cost  of  pro- 
ducing loo  pounds  of  gain  on  the  calves  was  $4.10, 
on  the  yearlings  $5.60  and  on  the  two-year-olds 
$6.60.  This  means  that  the  cost  of  producing  gains 
was  37  per  cent  more  on  yearlings  than  on  calves, 
and  18  per  cent  more  on  two-year-olds  than 
on  yearlings.  The  calves  weighed  at  the  begin- 
ning 384  pounds,  the  yearlings  784  pounds  and  the 
two-year-olds  1,032  pounds  each.  That  young  ani- 
mals make  better  use  of  food  seems  entirely  rea- 
sonable in  view  of  the  fact  that  nearly  half  of  a  full 
feed  is  required  for  maintaining  a  constant  weight. 
The  larger  the  animal  the  more  food  is  required  to 
keep  up  body  heat,  replace  worn  out  tissues,  force 
the  blood  to  circulate  and  do  other  necessary  work ; 
and  a  smaller  proportion  is  therefore  converted  into 
flesh  and  fat. 


152          PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

II.  The  same  capital  invested  in  young  stock 
produces  more  beef  than  in  older  stock.  The  man 
who  produces  his  own  feeders  also  realizes  his 
profits  sooner  in  baby  beef  than  in  older  beef.  The 
existing  conditions  favorable  to  early  feeding  are  (i) 
the  availability  of  low-down,  blocky  types  of  cattle 
which  respond  well  to  early  heavy  feeding,  putting  on 
fat  and -flesh  rapidly  without  a  large  development  of 
bone;  and  (2)  the  status  of  the  present  day  market, 
which  pays  practically  as  much  for  small  cattle  of  high 
finish  as  for  the  larger  i,4oo-pound  cattle  more  com- 
mon in  former  days. 

Whole  Milk  Calves  Best  for  Making  Early  Baby 
Beef. — For  the  production  of  early  baby  beef,  calves 
which  have  been  allowed  plenty  of  whole  milk  fresh 
from  the  cow  are  most  suitable,  because  they  are  in 
better  flesh  at  weaning  time.  Such  calves  should  be 
fed  grain  just  as  soon  as  they  can  be  encouraged  to 
eat.  A  mixture  consisting  of  equal  parts  of  whole 
oats,  bran  and  shelled  corn  is  very  satisfactory  for 
young  calves  receiving  milk.  Whole  grain  is  ordi- 
narily more  attractive  to  calves  than  ground  grain, 
because  the  whole  grain  is  always  fresh,  while  the 
ground  grain  is  sometimes  tainted  from  exposure  to 
the  air.  Shelled  corn  is  brittle  and  easily  cracked  by 
young  calves.  Probably  no  grain  is  more  relished  by 
them,  regardless  of  the  fact  that  it  is  too  starchy  for 
their  good  when  fed  alone.  Bran,  rich  in  protein,  off- 
sets the  starchy  corn  and  with  oats  satisfies  the 
craving  for  something  bulky,  needed  to  properly 
develop  the  ruminating  powers.  Bran  is  also  an 
excellent  bowel  regulator,  useful  in  connection  with 
a  whole  milk  diet.  Oats  tend  to  check  scours  in  all 
animals.  No  single  food  is  better  to  supplement  milk 
for  growing  calves  than  whole  oats,  but  the  mixture 
of  the  three  foods  is  more  satisfactory.  If  bran  is  not 
available,  one-half  the  same  quantity  of  oil-meal  or 


BABY  BEEF.  1 5  3 

gluten  meal  could  be  used  instead.  Grain  feeding  be- 
fore weaning  not  only  saves  milk,  but,  more  than 
that,  it  lessens  the  shrinkage  which  is  likely  to  fol- 
low weaning.  By  full  feeding  on  grain  at  weaning 
time,  very  little  shrinkage  is  occasioned  when  the 
milk  is  withdrawn  entirely. 

Feed  After  Weaning. — The  secret  of  feeding 
after  weaning  is  to  hold  the  milk  flesh  and  keep  the 
calf  putting  more  on  top.  At  this  age  it  is  natural  for 
a  calf  to  develop  frame.  If  flesh  and  fat  are  to  keep 
pace  with  this  bone  development,  heavy  grain  feeding 
is  the  only  recourse.  All  the  grain  the  calf  can  be 
made  to  consume  without  taking  the  edge  off  his  appe- 
tite is  the  best  guide  to  follow.  This  is  where  skill 
and  watchfulness  are  rewarded.  At  this  stage  the  calf 
should  have  about  one-half  corn,  one-fourth  oats  and 
one-fourth  bran.  With  spring  calves  a  late  summer 
pasture  of  blue-grass  will  furnish  any  protein  lacking 
in  the  grain  ration.  If  no  blue-grass  pasture  is  avail- 
able and  the  calves  are  stable-fed,  the  roughness 
should  consist  very  largely  of  clover  or  alfalfa, 
since  both  of  these  plants  are  rich  in  protein  and 
are  relished  by  calves. 

Feed  During  the  First  Winter. — In  producing 
baby  beef  there  should  be  no  cessation  of  heavy  grain 
feeding.  The  first  winter,  corn  should  be  increased 
to  form  at  least  60  per  cent  of  the  grain  ration.  If 
oats  are  high  in  price,  as  they  usually  are  in  com- 
parison with  corn,  it  is  better  economy  to  feed 
three-quarters  corn  and  one-quarter  bran,  or,  if 
bran  is  high,  seven-eighths  corn  and  one-eighth  oil 
meal.  Should  the  roughness  consist  in  part  of  corn 
stover,  timothy  or  prairie  hay,  somewhat  less  corn 
and  a  little  more  bran  or  oil  meal  should  be  used, 
since  such  forms  of  roughness,  are,  like  corn,  too 
starchy.  In  the  absence  of  clover,  alfalfa,  or  cow- 
pea  hay,  20  per  cent  of  oil  meal  could  be  used.  All: 


154        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

the  rough  feed  such  beeves  will  take  should  be  sup- 
plied. With  the  close  of  winter,  at  the  age  of  12 
months,  a  calf  under  such  treatment  should  weigh 
from  800  to  1,000  pounds  and  be  fat  enough  to 
market. 

Finishing  Baby  Beeves  on  Grass. — It  is  often 
more  profitable  to  full  feed  on  grass  until  about  July 
I,  since  cheap  gains  can  be  secured  during  the  summer 
with  corn  on  grass,  and  somewhat  less  grain  would  be 
required  the  previous  winter.  If  some  feed  like  oil 
meal,  cottonseed  meal  or  gluten  feed  can  be  had  at  a 
reasonable  price,  it  could  profitably  form  10  per  cent 
of  the  grain  ration,  and  if  the  pasture  is  timothy  or 
prairie  grass,  15  to  20  per  cent  would  be  needed. 
Baby  beeves  14  to  18  months  old,  weighing  from 
900  to  1,200  pounds,  are  more  profitably  handled 
by  packers  than  are  heavy  cattle  in  summer,  and 
are  therefore  in  greater  demand  at  that  season. 

Skim  Milk  Calves  for  Baby  Beef.— Skim  milk 
calves  are  as  a  rule  larger  in  frame,  carrying  less 
flesh  at  weaning  time  than  the  calf  well  nourished 
on  whole  milk.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  skim  milk 
calves  can  seldom  be  finished  for  baby  beef  before 
the  age  of  sixteen  or  eighteen  months  has  been 
reached.  This,  of  course,  depends  largely  upon  the 
skill  displayed  in  raising  the  calves.  The  condi- 
tion of  flesh  at  an  early  age  is  also  very  largely  gov- 
erned by  the  type  of  the  animal,  those  on  the  short- 
legged,  blocky  order  ripening  much  more  quickly 
than  the  leggy  kind. 

Heifer  calves  may  be  profitably  made  into  baby 
beef  for  several  reasons,  (i)  Heifer  calves  natu- 
rally take  on  flesh  more  rapidly  than  steer  calves 
under  like  conditions.  (2)  They  are  not  likely  to 
be  with  calf  at  this  early  age,  for  which  reason 
buyers  are  willing  to  pay  as  much  per  pound  for  a 
fat  heifer  under  18  months  as  for  a  steer  of  the  same 


BABY  BEEF. 


155 


quality  and  condition.  (3)  After  a  certain  age  is 
reached,  usually  about  twelve  months,  heifers 
come  in  heat  at  intervals  of  21  days.  This  period 
of  heat  lasts  about  two  days,  during  which  time  not 
only  the  one  individual  loses  in  weight,  but  others 
in.  the  herd  are  more  or  less  excited  and  lose  there- 
by. This  loss  can  only  be  overcome  by  watching 
the  herd  and  by  separating  each  animal  that  comes 
in  heat — which,  of  course,  involves  labor — or  by 
spaying  all  females.  Spaying  heifers  is  a  much 
more  difficult  operation  than  castrating  male  calves, 
resulting  in  some  shrinkage  and  not  infrequently 
in  the  death  of  the  animal.  Feeding  for  baby  beef 
is  the  best  solution  of  the  heifer  problem.  The 
prices  on  young  "she  stuff"  at  our  Western  markets 
are  often  such  as  to  make  the  feeding  of  that  class 
more  profitable  than  steer  feeding. 


Angus  Baby  Beeves  fed  by  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

FEEDING  YEARLING   STEERS  FOR  BEEF. 

In  the  preceding  chapter  on  "baby  beef,"  the  ad- 
vantages of  early  fattening  were  pointed  out.  But 
this  method  also  has  its  limitations  and  its  disad- 
vantages under  certain  conditions.  Where  beef 
raising  is  not  carried  on  in  connection  with  dairy 
farming,  the  cost  of  keeping  the  cow  one  year  is 
charged  to  the  calf  she  brings  up.  In  other  words, 
the  calf,  in  starting  upon  its  career  of  beef  produc- 
tion, has  hanging  over  it  a  debt  for  its  creation.  If 
the  calf  is  sold  at  the  age  of  twelve  months,  this 
sum,  which  may  be  only  $12,  is  charged  to  one 
year's  growth ;  if  sold  at  the  age  of  24  months  it 
is  distributed  over  two  years'  growth,  making  it 
$6  for  each  year.  .  The  feeder  market  gives  recog- 
nition of  this  fact  by  quoting  calves  about  25  per 
cent  higher  per  pound  than  yearlings  of  equal  qual- 
ity. Owing  to  the  birth  cost  of  an  animal  it  is  not 
always  profitable  to  cut  off  its  life  too  early. 

Then,  too,  in  the  production  of  baby  beef,  heavy 
grain  feeding  is  resorted  to  from  start  to  finish. 
In  converting  any  concentrated  feed,  as  grain, 
into  meat,  the  pig  is  a  much  more  economical  pro- 
ducer than  the  steer.  For  example,  up  to  200 
pounds  in  weight,  a  pig  will  consume  during  life 
an  average  of  about  four  pounds  of  grain  for  each 
pound  of  increase  in  weight.  In  the  production  of 
baby  beef  marketed  at  the  age  of  16  months,  there 
will  be  required  nearly  five  pounds  of  grain  and 
some  roughness  for  each  pound  of  increase. 

The  ruminants — cattle  and  sheep — with  their  four 
156 


FEEDING  YEARLING  STEERS.  157 

stomachs,  are  naturally  consumers  of  roughness,  in 
the  large  use  of  which  the  pig  is  handicapped  and 
can  not  compete.  There  is  grown  on  every  farm 
considerable  roughness  in  the  shape  of  cornstalks, 
hay  and  the  like,  which  would  command  but  a  very 
low  figure  if  placed  on  the  open  market.  It  is  for 
the  utilization  of  this  cheap  roughness  that  the 
steer  has  a  place.  Only  in  the  cow  or  sheep  has  he 
a  substitute  for  this  work.  When  such  animals  are 
not  present  in  sufficient  number  to  consume  all 
roughness,  then  it  is  better  economy  to  feed  the 
steer  more  of  such  feed  and  correspondingly  less 
grain,  even  though  more  time  is  required  to  get 
him  on  the  market.  This  has  been  especially  true 
during  recent  years,  when  corn  has  been  high  in 
price.  With  modern  types  of  cattle,  which  natur- 
ally mature  earlier  than  formerly,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  extend  the  feeding  period  beyond  the  age 
of  24  months,  even  with  a  liberal  feeding  of  rough- 
ness during  the  first  year. 

Amount  of  Grain  the  First  Winter. — Just  how 
much  the  grain  ration  may  be  profitably  reduced 
the  first  winter  is  not  definitely  known.  During  two 
winters  experiments  have  been  carried  on  at  the 
Nebraska  Experiment  Station  to  throw  some  light 
on  the  relative  economy  of  hay  with  and  without 
grain  for  calves.  During  the  winter  of  1901-02 
Angus  calves,  weighing  500  pounds  each,  were 
divided  into  two  lots,  one  lot  fed  hay  without 
grain,  the  other  fed  four  pounds  of  mixed  grain 
per  day.  In  both  lots  the  hay  was  largely  alfalfa 
of  good  quality,  with  just  enough  prairie  hay  to 
prevent  scours.  An  average  monthly  gain  of  33 
pounds  was  secured  on  hay  alone.  The  grain  lot 
made  an  average  gain  of  60  pounds  per  month. 
With  good  hay,  then  worth  $8  per  ton,  it  was  found 
that  each  100  pounds  of  gain  with  grain  cost  but 


158        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

$4.60,  while  without  grain  the  same  gain  cost  $6. 
This  was  a  large  saving  in  favor  of  light  grain 
feeding  during  the  first  winter  in  comparison  with 
no  grain.  The  following  summer,  however,  when 
both  lots  were  placed  in  the  same  pasture,  without 
grain,  the  steers  previously  given  no  grain  made  a 
gain  of  10  pounds  per  month  more  than  the  winter 
grain  fed  calves.  The  latter,  however,  were  enough 
better  in  quality  to  make  this  light  grain  feeding 
during  the  winter  about  15  per  cent  less  costly  than 
without  grain  for  the  whole  year. 

The  following  winter  fifty  Hereford  steer  calves 
were  divided  into  three  lots.  One  lot  wras  fed  hay 
alone,  one  hay  and  three  pounds  of  grain  daily,  and 
the  third  hay  and  six  pounds  of  grain  daily.  At 
this  time  alfalfa  and  prairie  hay  were  each 
worth  $6  per  ton.  The  gain  of  those  having  no 
grain  with  hay  cost  $7  per  hundred  pounds,  while 
the  gain  of  those  having  three  pounds  of  grain  cost 
$4.95  per  hundred,  and  those  having  six  pounds  of 
grain  cost  $4.35.  By  the  end  of  the  year,  all 
having  been  summer  pastured,  without  grain,  at 
a  cost  of  $4  per  steer,  the  lot  having  three  pounds 
of  grain  the  previous  winter  made  gains  at  a  cost 
of  $3.14  per  hundred,  while  the  lot  receiving  no 
grain  made  gains  at  a  cost  of  $3.17,  and  the  lot  re- 
ceiving six  pounds,  $3.46  per  hundred.  No  doubt 
the  "no  grain"  calves  consumed  more  grass,  which 
would  put  them  at  a  somewhat  greater  disadvan- 
tage than  the  figures  denote.  The  records  from 
these  experiments,  then,  would  indicate  that,  for 
the  first  year's  feeding,  a  light  grain  ration  during 
the  winter  with  good  roughness  is  more  econom- 
ical, when  no  grain  is  fed  the  following  summer, 
than  either  no  grain,  or  a  grain  ration  as  high  as 
six  pounds  per  day. 

Character  of  the  Ration. — The  successful  utiliza- 


FEEDING  YEARLING  STEERS, 


2  B 


l6o         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

tion  of  a  large  quantity  of  roughness  during  the 
first  winter's  feeding  depends  very  largely  on  the 
kind  supplied  and  its  quality.  Well  cured  alfalfa, 
clover  and  cowpea  hay  are  best,  because  any  of 
these,  with  corn,  makes  a  fairly  well  balanced  ration 
for  calves;  though  a  ration  with  so  large  a  quan- 
tity of  alfalfa  contains  really  more  protein  than  is 
necessary,  and  something  like  cornstalks,  oat  straw 
or  cane,  fed  in  small  quantity  with  it,  cheapens  the 
ration  and  at  the  same  time  lessens  its  tendency  to 
produce  scours.  Should  the  roughness  consist  en- 
tirely of  timothy  hay,  prairie  hay,  cornstalks,  sor- 
ghum, millet  or  straw,  then  it  will  be  necessary  to 
feed  about  three-fourths  corn  to  one-fourth  linseed 
or  gluten  meal.  If  bran  is  used  it  should  form 
about  half  the  grain  ration  with  corn.  Oats  are  not 
especially  rich  in  protein,  but  when  the  price  per- 
mits are  a  very  useful  adjunct  to  corn.  Corn  silage 
is  excellent  for  wintering  calves,  if  a  little  supple- 
mentary protein  is  supplied.  Being  succulent,  it 
makes  young  cattle  sappy  and  well  prepared  for 
future  growth. 

Tabulated  Rations  for  Calves. — Following  is  a 
table  showing  the  nutrients  in  each  of  two  rations 
recommended  for  a  5oo-pound  calf  which  is  to  be 
fattened  as  a  yearling  the  following  winter: 

Dry  Carto-          Nutritive 

matter.  Protein,  hydrates.  Fat.    ratio. 

Red  clover,  12  Ibs 10.1  .82        4.29         .20 

Corn,  3  Ibs 2.6          .24         2.00         .13 

Total 12.7        1.06        6.29         .33        1:6.6 

Alfalfa,    7   Ibs 6.4          .77         2.77        .09 

Corn  stover,  6  Ibs „     3.6          .10         1.94        .04 

Corn,  3  Ibs 2.6          .24         2.00        .13 

Total,.  .  12.6        1.11        6.71        .26        1:6.6 


FEEDING  YEARLING  STEERS.          l6l 

Fall  and  Winter  Feeding. — With  good  grass  pas- 
ture, without  grain,  following  a  winter's  feed  con- 
sisting of  roughness  with  three  or  four  pounds  of 
grain  fed  to  each  calf  daily,  a  gain  of  40  to  50 
pounds  per  month  may  be  expected  during  the  en- 
tire year,  and  sufficient  flesh  will  be  put  on  to  make 
practicable  the  second  winter's  heavy  grain  feeding. 
Yearling  steers  may  be  left  on  pasture  as  long  as 
they  have  an  abundance  of  feed  and  the  weather  is 
not  too  cold.  In  the  more  Northern  States  it  is 
usually  found  advisable  to  remove  from  pasture 
field  to  feed-lot  late  in  October  or  some  time  in 
November,  unless  provision  is  made  for  feeding 
some  grain  in  the  field.  Yearling  steers  are  less  able 
to  stand  exposure  to  cold  winds  than  are  two-year-olds, 
for  which  reason  they  should  go  to  the  feed-lot  fairly 
early.  Not  having  been  fed  grain  during  the  sum- 
mer, feeding  should  begin  by  making  the  ration  very 
largely  roughage,  alfalfa,  clover  or  cowpea  hay  pre- 
dominating, with  either  cornstalks,  sorghum,  prairie 
hay  or  oat  straw  to  furnish  variety  and  at  the  same 
time  to  act  as  a  preventive  of  scours,  which  is  not 
uncommon  when  alfalfa  is  fed  in  large  quantity. 

About  three  pounds  of  grain  per  steer  the  first  day 
is  quite  enough.  There  are  usually  some  steers  which 
do  not  eat  grain  the  first  day,  and  if  more  than  this  is 
supplied  the  others  get  too  much.  This  amount  may 
be  increased  one  pound  every  other  day  until  an  allow- 
ance of  nine  pounds  has  been  reached,  when  the  further 
increase  should  be  somewhat  more  gradual,  say  at  the 
rate  of  not  more  than  two  pounds  per  week.  With 
fifteen  pounds  per  day  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  week, 
the  steers  will  be  eating  about  all  the  grain  they  will 
care  for,  so  long  as  good  roughage  is  supplied  in 
abundance.  It  is  not  practicable  to  weigh  roughage 
for  cattle.  They  should  receive  all  they  will  con- 
sume without  excessive  waste.  Coarse  stems  con- 


l62        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

tain  but  little  nourishment,  and  cattle  can  hardly 
be  expected  to  eat  them.  It  is  not  economy  to  force 
cattle  to  clean  out  the  racks  containing  rough  feed 
so  completely  that  they  will  consume  less  of  such 
feed  than  they  otherwise  would,  and  therefore  de- 
mand more  grain.  In  no  case  let  the  change  from 
grass  to  heavy  grain  feeding  be  made  too  sud- 
denly. The  system  must  be  given  time  to  adapt 
itself  to  the  new  conditions;  if  not,  digestive  dis- 
orders may  result,  and  this  means  no  little  sacri- 
fice to  profits.  Five  weeks  for  this  change  is  none  too 
much  time. 

Character  of  Rations. — A  yearling  steer  weighing, 
January  i,  from  800  to  900  pounds,  supplied  with  15 
pounds  of  grain  per  day,  will  consume  something  like 
8  pounds  of  hay.  If  this  is  alfalfa  or  cowpea  hay, 
the  grain,  at  average  Western  prices,  for  most  profit- 
able gains  should  be  corn  alone,  at  least  so  far  as 
investigations  to  date  indicate.  For  most  perfect 
digestion  either  shelled  corn  or  corn  meal  is  rather 
heavy.  This  compactness  which  prevents  a  ready 
admixture  of  digestive  juices  in  the  stomach  is 
easily  overcome  by  grinding  cob  and  corn  together, 
or  by  feeding  crushed  or  broken  husked  or  snapped 
corn,  the  latter  name  designating  ear  corn  within 
the  husk.  When  corn,  cob  and  husk  are  passed  to 
the  stomach  ground  together  in  a  Vnass,  we  have 
a  mixture  easily  penetrated  by  the  gastric  juice  and 
other  digestive  fluids  and  entirely  safe  for  forced 
methods  of  feeding.  Corn  without  cob  is  some- 
times made  more  bulky  by  mixing  it  with  bran 
or  cut  hay,  but  usually  at  greater  expense  than  with 
ground  cob.  With  clover,  however,  bran  is  entirely 
practicable,  inasmuch  as  a  little  more  protein  is  then 
desirable,  though  if  corn  and  cob  meal  is  easily 
obtained,  the  extra  protein  is  often  more  cheaply 
furnished  in  linseed,  gluten  or  cottonseed  meal. 


FEEDING  YEARLING  STEERS.  163 

Without  Legumes  for  Roughage  Protein  Concen- 
trates Are  Needed. — In  feeding  timothy  or  prairie 
hay,  cane  or  any  roughage  of  which  one  of  the  legumes 
— clover,  alfalfa  or  cowpea  hay — is  not  made  a  part, 
it  is  decidedly  advantageous  to  use  a  protein  concen- 
trate with  corn,  more  so  with  yearling  steers  than  with 
older  cattle.  From  what  has  been  said  concerning  the 
lack  of  protein,  or  flesh-making  material,  in  corn  and 
all  hay  plants  except  the  legumes,  it  is  at  once  ap- 
parent that  a  protein  concentrate  is  needed.  In  a  test 
at  the  Nebraska  Station  in  1904,  yearling  steers  on 
corn  and  alfalfa  made  an  average  gain  of  1.97  pounds 
per  day  during  a  six  months'  feeding  period,  while 
a  lot  on  corn  and  prairie  hay  gained  but  1.35  pounds 
per  day.  Thirty-six  per  cent  more  feed  was  re- 
quired for  each  pound  of  gain  on  corn  and  prairie 
hay  than  was  required  on  corn  and  alfalfa,  and,  as 
the  market  price  on  both  kinds  of  hay  was  the  same, 
the  cost  of  producing  gains  was  correspondingly 
higher  on  corn  and  prairie  hay.  The  net  profit  on 
corn  and  prairie  hay  was  38  cents  per  steer  for  the 
six  months'  feeding,  while  those  in  the  alfalfa  lot 
each  returned  a  net  profit  of  $8.66. 

In  another  lot,  where  the  roughage  consisted  of 
prairie  hay  and  the  grain  ration  was  90  per  cent 
corn  and  10  per  cent  oil  meal,  the  average  daily  gain 
was  1.91  pounds  as  compared  with  1.35  pounds 
without  oil  meal.  In  this  case  33  per  cent  more 
feed  was  required  for  each  pound  of  gain  when  the 
oilmeal  was  left  out  of  the  ration.  With  prairie  hay 
worth  $6  per  ton,  corn  60  cents  per  hundred  (33 
cents  per  bushel)  and  oil  meal  $1.25  per  hundred, 
each  pound  of  gain  without  oil  meal  cost  21  per 
cent  more  than  with  oil  meal,  and  each  steer  in  this 
lot  returned  a  net  profit  of  $4.76  as  compared  with 
$.38  without  oil  meal.  Where  the  oil  meal  was 
added  the  steers  could  be  induced  to  take  more  feed, 


164  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

which,  no  doubt,  partially  accounted  for  their  more 
economical  gains.  The  nutritive  ratio  of  the  oil  meal 
ration  was  I  pound  of  nitrogenous  material  to  8 
pounds  of  the  non-nitrogenous,  while  the  nutritive 
ratio  of  the  poorly  balanced  ration,  consisting  of 
corn  and  prairie  hay  without  oil  meal,  was  i :  10.4— 
yet  the  latter  ration  is  one  very  largely  used  in  the 
West. 

In  a  ration  consisting  of  corn,  90  per  cent;  oil 
meal,  10  per  cent;  and  corn  stover  (stalks  without 
ears),  in  which  the  nutritive  ratio  was  1 :8,  the  daily 
gain  was  1.96  pounds  per  steer,  and  the  cost  of  pro- 
ducing gains  just  as  cheap  as  on  corn  and  alfalfa. 
This  ration  produced  9  per  cent  larger  gains  for  the 
same  weight  of  food  consumed  than  were  made  on 
corn,  90  per  cent;  oil  meal,  10  per  cent;  and  sor- 
ghum hay,  a  ration  in  which  the  nutritive  ratio  was 
approximately  1 19. 

The  50  steers  in  the  experiment  described  were 
finished  for  market  at  the  age  of  24  months,  aver- 
aging 1,120  pounds  each,  when  they  sold  for  as 
much  per  pound  as  older  cattle  of  the  same  qual- 
ity. These  steers  consumed  during  the  first  winter, 
as  calves,  an  average  of  2.9  pounds  of  grain  each 
per  day,  and  during  the  second  winter,  on  full  feed, 
15.6  pounds  each  per  day.  For  each  pound  of  live 
weight  at  the  time  the  steers  were  sold,  they  had 
consumed  during  both  years  an  average  of  three 
pounds  of  grain  and  the  same  weight  of  hay.  This, 
of  course,  does  not  include  the  milk  and  grass  pas- 
ture received  as  calves,  nor  a  second  summer's  pas- 
ture as  yearlings.  It  confirms  what  has  been  said, 
that  finishing  "long  yearlings"  permits  a  larger  use 
of  roughage,  requiring  less  grain  per  pound  of  beef 
than  is  required  in  the  production  of  "baby  beef/' 


CHAPTER  XV. 

FATTENING  STEERS  WITH  GRAIN  ON 
PASTURE. 

Finishing  Two-Year-Old  Steers  With  Grain  on 
Grass. — In  feeding  out  yearlings  for  a  spring  mar- 
ket, as  just  described,  while  the  grain  feeding  is 
light  the  first  winter,  one  is  compelled  to  use  grain 
very  liberally  all  the  second  winter,  in  order  to  se- 
cure a  marketable  finish  by  May,  and  if  the  cattle 
are  inclined  to  be  a  little  rangy  in  type,  it  is  .frequent- 
ly necessary  to  feed  into  June.  Early  June  is  often 
fairly  cool  in  the  Northern  States,  and  the  markets 
at  this  season  for  the  lighter  weights,  like  yearlings, 
are  usually  good;  but  later  in  the  month  hot 
weather  becomes  oppressive  for  fat  cattle  and  flies 
begin  to  be  troublesome,  making  it  difficult  to  se- 
cure a  reasonable  gain.  With  a  good  pasture  field 
on  the  farm,  it  is  possible  to  save  grain  by  feeding 
sparingly  during  the  second  winter  as  well  as  the 
first,  finishing  on  grass  the  following  summer. 
Some  use  no  grain  the  early  part  of  the  second  win- 
ter. At  the  New  Mexico  Station  yearling  steers 
gained  1.36  pounds  per  day  on  alfalfa  alone,  and  at 
Arizona  1.5  pounds  per  day. 

In  localities  where  corn  is  relatively  high  in  price, 
and  hay  and  grass  are  abundant,  finishing  steers  on 
grass  is  often  profitable.  Cattle  fed  on  grass  re- 
quire less  grain  for  a  given  increase  in  weight  than 
when  winter-fed  on  hay  and  grain.  The  nutritious 
and  palatable  grass  seems  to  take  the  place  of  grain 
to  a  limited  extent.  There  are  two  ways  of  feeding 

165 


1 66        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

grain  on  grass:  one  is  spring  and  early  summer, 
the  other  late  fall  and  early  winter  feeding. 

Feeding  Grain  on  Grass  in  Early  Summer. — As- 
suming that  the  steers  have  had  a  fairly  liberal 
supply  of  grain  the  previous  winter — perhaps  half  a 
full-feed  or  more — it  is  better  to  continue  the  grain 
on  grass,  supplying  all  they  will  take  and  market- 
ing as  soon  as  ready,  which  will  probably  be  some 
time  in  July.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  mak- 
ing the  change  from  dry  hay  to  green  grass.  If  it 
is  sudden  there  is  sure  to  be  a  shrinkage.  Cattle 
are  prone  to  fill  up.  on  grass  if  given  the  first  op- 
portunity, which  brings  on  scours,  often  flushing 
out  the  system  to  such  an  extent  that  it  means  the 
loss  of  a  month's  growth.  It  is  not  likely  to  hap- 
pen if  the  change  is  made  gradually.  There  are 
two  ways  of  doing  this.  One  is  to  turn  the  cattle 
on  grass  for  but  a  short  time  at  first,  lengthening 
the  period  a  little  each  day.  The  other  is  to  allow 
the  cattle  the  run  of  the  pasture  just  as  soon  as  the 
first  blades  appear  in  the  spring.  They  are  then 
able  to  get  but  very  little  grass  at  first,  but  more 
each  day  thereafter  as  the  grass  grows  larger. 
There  are  two  disadvantages,  however,  with  this 
method  of  feeding.  First,  in  early  spring  the  sod  is 
likely  to  be  soft,  becoming  badly  trampled  if  cattle 
are  allowed  to  run  upon  it.  This  makes  it  neces- 
sary for  cattle  to  be  shut  off  for  a  few  days  in  case 
of  heavy  rain,  and  they  will  eat  too  much  grass 
when  turned  on  again  afterward.  The  second  dis- 
advantage is  that  early  pasturing  does  not  permit  so 
large  a  yield  of  grass,  because  it  has  no  chance  to 
make  a  start.  A  large  blade  can  elaborate  much 
more  food  from  air  and  soil  than  one  kept  small  by 
a  continuous  cropping  off;  for  this  reason  a  larger 
yield  of  grass  can  be  had  by  keeping  stock  off  the 
field  until  it  is  well  started.  Therefore,  although  it 


GRAIN  ON   PASTURE.  l6? 

involves  more  labor,  it  is  probably  better  to  keep 
the  cattle  off  pasture  until  the  grass  has  a  few 
weeks'  growth,  turning  on  for  an  hour  the  first  day, 
increasing  the  length  of  time  each  succeeding  day 
until  the  cattle  remain  permanently  in  the  pasture. 
By  this  method  they  get  grass  very  gradually,  and 
do  not  shrink  in  consequence.  Besides  being  a 
safe  method,  this  is  also  a  practical  one  when  there 
are  many  in  the  herd. 

Character  of  the  Grain  Ration  on  Grass. — On 
a  pasture  containing  an  abundance  of  clover  the 
grain  may  consist  entirely  of  corn,  the  clover  sup- 
plying sufficient  protein  to  make  up  what  is  lack- 
ing in  corn.  Alfalfa  would  do  the  same,  though 
it  has  been  found  unsafe  to  pasture  clear  alfalfa  be- 
cause of  bloat.  If  timothy,  brome-grass  or  some 
other  grass  is  mixed  with  alfalfa  this  difficulty  may 
be  overcome.  It  was  recently  found  at  the  Ne- 
braska Experiment  Station  that  steers  pastured  on 
mixed  grasses,  consisting  of  blue-grass,  brome- 
grass,  meadow  fescue,  prairie  grass  and  a  little  al- 
falfa made  better  gains  when  fed  oil  meal  with  corn 
than  when  fed  corn  alone.  During  a  summer  period 
of  30  weeks  five  two-year-old  Angus  steers  were 
fed  an  average  of  17.8  pounds  of  shelled  corn  each 
per  day,  making  an  average  daily  gain  of  1.63 
pounds.  Another  lot  of  five  steers  of  the  same 
kind  were  each  fed  17.8  pounds  of  grain  per  day, 
consisting  of  90  per  cent  shelled  corn  and  10  per 
cent  oil  meal.  These  steers  made  an  average  gain 
of  2. 02  pounds  per  day  during  the  same  time.  The 
pasture  was  alike  in  both  lots.  Those  fed  corn  and 
oil  meal  required  but  8.8  pounds  of  grain  for  one 
pound  of  increase  in  weight,  while  those  fed  corn 
alone  required  10.9  pounds.  With  pasture  worth  $3 
per  acre,  corn  worth  at  that  time  33  cents  per 
bushel,  and  oil  meal  $25  per  ton,  each  100  pounds 


i68 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


Grade  Angus  steers  used  in  the  Nebraska  Experiment.    "Corn  vs. 
corn  and  oil  meal  en  grass." 


GRAIN  ON  PASTURE. 

of  gain  on  corn  alone  cost  13  per  cent  more  than 
on  corn  and  oil  meal.  In  this  experiment,  if  the  oil 
meal  had  cost  $44  per  ton,  instead  of  $25,  nothing 
would  have  been  saved  by  feeding  it. 

The  results,  though  from  but  a  single  experiment 
and  therefore  not  fully  authoritative,  indicate  that 
corn  and  mixed  grass  of  this  kind  do  not  supply 
sufficient  protein.  Those  fed  oil  meal  were  much 
less  troubled  with  scours,  which  may  partially  ac- 
count for  the  difference  in  favor  of  the  oil  meal  lot. 
Cottonseed  meal  or  gluten  meal  could  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  oil  meal,  or  bran  might  answer  the 
purpose,  though  fully  twice  as  much,  amounting 
to  20  per  cent  of  the  grain  ration,  would  be  needed. 
With  pigs  running  behind  the  cattle,  dry  shelled  corn 
may  be  used.  Oil  meal  in  nut  form,  the  pieces  be- 
ing about  the  size  of  kernels  of  corn,  mixes  very 
well  with  shelled  corn,  and  blows  out  of  open  feed- 
ing bunks  very  much  less  than  the  finely  ground 
meal.  In  this  form,  too,  oil  meal  is  less  likely  to 
be  adulterated.  Without  hogs,  corn  should  be  fed 
ground  or  soaked.  Soaking  is  cheaper,  but  care 
should  be  taken  that  it  does  not  sour.  In  warm 
weather,  shelled  corn  soaked  12  hours  in  a  tight 
wagonbox  will  be  quite  soft  and  is  not  likely  to 
sour.  It  will  be  understood  that  soaked  corn 
should  not  be  fed  in  such  quantity  that  some  will 
be  left  in  the  feed  bunks  to  sour  after  the  feed. 

Cattle  two  years  old  fed  grain  on  grass  in  early 
summer  can  be  made  to  make  large  gains,  and  they 
should  be  good  enough  to  market  before  flies  be- 
come very  troublesome.  To  ship  with  small  shrink- 
age, grass-fed  cattle  should  be  removed  from  the 
pasture  one  or  two  days  before  shipment  and  fed 
dry  hay  with  little  or  no  grain. 

If  the  cattle  have  had  less  rather  than  more  than 
half  a  full  feed  of  corn  during  the  previous  winter, 


170  PROFITABLE   STOCK   FEEDING. 

very  satisfactory  gains  may  be  secured  on  good 
grass  without  grain.  If  the  grass  is  dry  rather 
than  watery  during  mid-summer  and  fall,  a  fair 
quality  of  beef  may  be  made  without  any  corn  for 
finishing,  though  enough  better  prices  usually  are 
obtained  to  make  corn  feeding  profitable,  noticeably 
so  when  corn  is  not  too  high  priced.  In  a  Nebraska 
test,  when  corn  was  worth  40  cents  per  bushel,  bran 
$16  per  ton  and  pasture  $3  per  acre,  grain-fed  steers 
returned  a  net  profit  of  $5  each,  while  grass  without 
grain  gave  a  net  profit  of  but  $2  per  steer.  The 
market  that  fall,  however,  was  unusually  favorable 
for  grain-fed  cattle. 

Fall  Feeding  Corn  on  Grass. — The  new  corn  crop 
during  most  seasons  is  sufficiently  ripe  to  cut  and 
shock  about  September  15  in  the  Northern  States. 
At  that  time  a  little  may  be  drawn  to  the  field  to 
be  fed  in  the  stalk.  With  this  system  the  cattle 
have  no  grain  in  early  summer.  Four  pounds  of 
corn  per  steer  will  answer  for  the  first  feed,  this 
amount  to  be  gradually  increased  until  the  cattle 
are  on  full  feed,  about  October  15.  When  full 
grain-fed,  the  cattle  will  consume  less  than  half 
of  the  stalk,  and,  unless  stock  cattle  can  be  turned 
in  afterwards,  much  will  be  wasted.  Under  such 
circumstances  it  is  better  to  substitute,  in  part, 
snapped  corn.  Cattle  can  be  fed  in  the  field  until 
snow  falls,  which  may  be  December  i  or  later,  at 
which  time  they  should  be  ripe  enough  to  bring  a 
good  price  on  the  market.  If,  for  any  reason,  the 
supply  of  grass  is  short,  enough  shock  corn  may  be 
fed  to  furnish  roughness,  and  the  protein  may  be 
supplied  by  using  bran,  oil  meal,  cottonseed  meal  or 
gluten  feed.  In  order  to  feed  some  one  of  these 
protein  concentrates,  it  will  be  necessary  to  feed 
part  of  the  corn  shelled  or  ground  to  serve  as  a 
mixing  medium.  Half  the  corn  fed  in  the  stalk 


GRAIN  ON  PASTURE.  171 

will  supply  sufficient  roughness,  and  the  other  half 
may  be  fed  as  shelled  corn  or  ground  corn  and  cob, 
in  which  is  mixed  one-fifth,  by  weight,  of  one  of 
the  concentrated  protein  foods  mentioned. 

Feed-racks  are  necessary  for  field  feeding,  unless 
the  pigs  can  be  turned  into  the  lot  after  the  cattle 
have  been  fed — a  matter  easily  regulated  by  call- 
ing the  pigs  into  an  enclosure  each  night,  where  they 
are  given  a  slop  consisting  largely  of  shorts,  per- 
mitting them  to  go  out  after  the  cattle  have  finished, 
which  is  usually  near  noon.  In  that  case  corn  in  the 
stalk  could  be  scattered  on  the  sod.  One  distinc- 
tive advantage  which  comes  from  scattering  corn  on 
the  grass  is  that  something  in  the  shape  of  fertiliz- 
ing material  is  distributed  over  the  pasture  each 
year.  Fields  continuously  pastured  lose  fertility 
unless  something  from  outside  sources  is  fed  on  the 
land,  or  barnyard  manure  is  spread  over  the  pas- 
ture at  intervals.  Feeding  grain  on  pasture  is  more 
satisfactory  because  less  labor  is  involved.  Old 
blue-grass  pastures  are  by  far  the  best  pastures,  if 
the  land  is  not  allowed  to  deteriorate;  the  grass 
then  becomes  less  abundant  and  weeds  of  various 
kinds  make  their  appearance.  By  keeping  up  the 
fertility  as  suggested,  avoiding  close  pasturage,  per- 
manent grass  lands  can  be  maintained  which  will 
produce  yearly  a  large  number  of  pounds  of  beef. 
A  loo-acre  pasture  field  owned-in  part  by  the  writer 
has  pastured  cattle  continuously  for  over  30  years, 
and  it  is  still  producing  highly  nutritious  blue-grass 
in  abundance.  In  these  days  of  scarce  labor  a  good, 
permanent  pasture  field  is  a  boon  to  every  farmer. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

WINTER   FEEDING   RANGE   TWO-YEAR- 
OLD  STEERS. 

Range  Steers  Sell  as  Feeders  in  the  Fall. — A  very 
large  proportion  of  the  steers  two  years  old  and 
over,  fattened  in  the  corn  belt,  are  grown  on  the 
range  lands  of  the  West  and  Southwest.  The 
farmer  who  raises  the  steers  he  feeds  for  market  is 
hardly  justified  in  holding  them  until  they  reach  the 
age  of  34  to  36  months,  as  is  customary  with  range 
two-year-olds.  Finishing  in  the  fall  on  shock  corn 
or  snapped  corn,  or  still  earlier  as  yearlings  or 
baby  beeves,  is  more  profitable.  But  with  range 
steers  the  bulk  of  the  offerings  do  not  come  to  mar- 
ket until  late  fall,  which  makes  winter  feeding  of 
that  class  the  most  common  practice. 

Grain  Fed  Sparingly  at  First. — In  feeding  range 
cattle  it  is  well  to  buy  not  later  than  November,  in 
order  that  they  may  be  started  on  corn  slowly,  yet 
finished  before  late  May  or  June,  when  hot  weather 
comes  on.  Range  steers  are  often  very  thin  in  flesh 
because  of  a  scarcity  of  grass,  and  in  that  condition 
it  is  much  better  to  feed  liberally  on  hay,  at  least 
the  first  six  or  eight  weeks.  Thin  range  steers 
frequently  make  a  gain  of  2  pounds  per  day  the 
first  two  months,  on  an  average  feed  of  8  pounds 
of  grain  per  day,  with  all  the  good  roughage  they 
will  consume.  Not  only  does  this  gradual  process 
of  grain  feeding  remove  all  danger  connected  with 
the  change  from  grass  to  grain,  but  hay  used  lib- 
erally seems  to  distend  the  digestive  system,  giving 

•7* 


FEEDING  RANGE  TWO-YEAR-OLDS.  173 

larger  capacity  for  future  grain  feeding.  Cattle 
from  the  range,  without  this  distention,  are  not  the 
heaviest  gainers. 

If  cattle  are  in  condition  for  heavy  grain  feeding 
early,  5  pounds  per  steer  can  be  fed  the  first  day, 
though  3  or  4  is  more  often  better.  The  increase 
of  grain  should  be  made  as  has  been  suggested  for 
yearlings,  a  full  feed  being  reached  in  not  less  than 
five  weeks,  a  little  more  time  being  preferable  in 
most  cases. 

Character  of  Winter  Rations  for  Two-year-olds. 
—What  has  been  said  concerning  the  character  of 
winter  rations  for  yearlings  will  apply  in  a  general 
way  to  steers  two  years  old,  though  the  latter  re- 
quire less  protein  and  are,  therefore,  more  profitably 
fed  wider  rations.  A  ration,  however,  made  up  of 
corn  and  timothy  hay,  or  any  other  non-nitrogenous 
roughage,  will  not  supply  two-year-olds  with  suffi- 
cient protein  for  profitable  gains.  At  the  Missouri 
Experiment  Station  corn  and  clover  hay  gave  29  per 
cent  larger  gains  for  grain  consumed  than  corn  and 
timothy  hay.  At  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station 
corn  and  clover  effected  a  saving  of  22  per  cent  of 
the  grain  required  for  a  given  gain,  as  compared 
with  corn,  timothy  and  corn  stover.  This  was  un- 
questionably due  to  the  lack  of  protein  in  the  latter 
ration;  for,  when  gluten  meal,  a  concentrated  pro- 
tein food,  was  supplied,  there  was  required  24  per 
cent  less  grain  for  a  given  gain  than  without  it.  The 
nutritive  ratio  of  the  three  rations  fed  is  as  follows : 
corn  and  clover,  1 19.4 ;  corn,  timothy  and  corn 
stover,  1:13;  corn,  timothy,  stover  and  gluten  meal, 
1 19.4.  The  average  of  three  tests  at  the  Kansas 
Station  shows  that  by  using  bran,  shorts  and  oil 
meal  to  balance  the  ration,  28  per  cent  less  grain 
was  required  for  a  given  gain  than  when  corn, 
stover  and  prairie  hay  were  fed.  In  an  Iowa  experi- 


174        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

ment,  where  oil  meal,  cottonseed  meal  and  gluten 
feed  were  used  in  separate  lots  in  comparison  with 
corn  not  thus  supplemented,  there  was  an  average 
saving  of  19  per  cent  of  the  grain  fed,  by  the  use  of 
the  supplemental  foods.  Had  not  a  little  clover 
been  used  toward  the  close,  no  doubt  the  saving 
effected  by  the  use  of  these  foods  would  have  been 
still  greater. 

In  a  Nebraska  test  conducted  in  1905  with  thin 
range  steers,  corn  90  per  cent,  oil  meal  10  per  cent, 
and  prairie  hay  required  a  little  over  5  per  cent  less 
grain  per  pound  of  gain  than  was  required  by  corn 
and  prairie  hay  without  oil  meal.  This  was  a  rather 
small  saving  compared  with  the  23  per  cent  on  year- 
lings the  previous  winter.  In  the  two-year-old  test 
the  oil  meal  cost  $28  per  ton  and  the  corn  39  cents 
per  bushel.  With  the  small  saving  by  the  use  of  oil 
meal  and  with  this  food  high  in  price,  the  cost  of 
producing  one  pound  of  gain  was  practically  the 
same  in  both  lots.  With  the  ten  steers  fed  oil  meal, 
however,  a  much  earlier  finish  was  secured,  such  as 
to  make  them  bring  $5.25  in  Omaha  as  compared 
with  $5.10  for  the  ten  fed  only  corn  and  prairie 
hay — this,  too,  on  an  even  start  six  months  pre- 
vious. With  all  steers  costing  $4  per  cwt.  deliv- 
ered, and  the  oil  meal  lot  selling  for  $4.98  net  on 
home  weights  and  the  other  lot  $4.78,  there  was  a 
net  profit  of  $1.09  per  steer  with  oil  meal  and  a  net 
loss  of  $1.12  per  steer  without  oil  meal.  Had  the  oil 
meal  cost  $41.19  per  ton  instead  of  $28,  the  loss 
would  have  been  the  same  with  oil  meal  as  without. 

Protein  Roughage  Usually  More  Profitable  Than 
Protein  Concentrates.— »-As  has  been  suggested  for 
dairy  cows,  a  protein  roughage  is  often  more  eco- 
nomically fed  in  connection  with  corn  than  is  a  more 
costly  commercial  protein  food.  In  the  Nebraska  test 
just  referred  to,  alfalfa  and  corn  gave  14  per  cent 


FEEDING  RANGE  TWO-YEAR-OLDS.  175 

larger  gains,  and  correspondingly  larger  profits,  for 
grain  consumed,  than  prairie  hay  and  corn,  and  10 
per  cent  larger  gains  than  prairie  hay,  corn  and 
oil  meal.  Stated  in  another  way,  prairie  hay,  valued 
at  $6  per  ton,  fed  with  oil  meal  proved  equivalent  to 
alfalfa  at  $8.28  per  ton,  and  without  oil  meal  equiv- 
alent to  alfalfa  at  $11.14  Per  ton-  With  oil  meal  cost- 
ing $28  per  ton,  alfalfa  returned  a  value  of  $13  per 
ton  in  comparison  with  it.  In  an  Illinois  test, 
gluten  meal  at  $28  per  ton,  fed  in  connection  with 
timothy  and  corn  stover,  returned  a  slightly  larger 
profit  than  corn  and  clover,  the  latter  being  then 
worth  $11  per  ton. 

Corn  Stover  With  Alfalfa  Cheapest.— The  alfalfa 
and  corn  ration  in  the  Nebraska  test  gave  a  nutritive 
ratio  of  1 17.4.  Apparently  these  steers  were  able  to 
stand  a  ration  still  wider,  as  another  lot  of  ten  in  the 
same  experiment  fed  equal  parts  of  alfalfa  and  corn 
stover  required  but  7.89  pounds  of  corn  for  one  pound 
of  gain  as  compared  with  8.14  pounds  with  alfalfa 
alone,  or  3  per  cent  less.  The  stover  and  alfalfa  ration 
had  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 18.4,  which  is  added  evidence 
in  favor  of  something  like  1 :8  in  preference  to  a 
ration  more  narrow  for  two-year-old  steers. 

The  stover  in  this  experiment  was  figured  at  $2.50 
per  ton,  a  high  valuation  for  a  fodder  allowed  to  go 
to  waste  in  Western  fields.  This  combination  pro- 
duced gains  at  a  cost  of  but  $6.49  per  hundred  com- 
pared with  alfalfa  and  corn  at  a  cost  of  $6.89  per 
hundred,  the  alfalfa  and  corn  ranking  second  in  point 
of  economy  among  the  five  lots  fed  in  the  experiment. 
With  alfalfa  worth  $6  per  ton  as  fed  with  corn,  the 
stover  returned  a  value  of  $4.63  when  made  one-half 
the  roughage  with  alfalfa.  The  stover  seemed  to  be 
well  relished,  though  of  course  the  stubs,  or  lower 
third,  of  the  stalk  were  refused  and  were  thrown  out 


Lot.  1.     Steers  fed  corn  and  prairie  hay.     Cost,  $3.90  per  hundred ;  selling  price,  $5.10. 


Lot  2.     Steers  fed  corn,  90% ;  oil  meal,    10%,  and  prairie  hay. 

dred  ;  selling  price,  $5.25. 

Two-Year-Old  Steers  in  a  Nebraska  test  to  show  the  effect  of  oil  meal 

corn  and  prairie  hay. 

176 


Cost,  $3.90  per  hun- 
in  a  ration  of 


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177 


178  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

for  bedding,  but  charged  to  the  steers  as  though  all 
had  been  consumed.  Not  only  did  stover  furnish 
variety,  but  it  also  lessened  the  tendency  to  scour  on 
alfalfa. 

Character  of  the  Stover  Used. — The  corn  from 
which  the  stover  came  was  cut  and  put  into  shocks 
just  as  soon  as  the  ears  had  thoroughly  dented  and 
the  husks  about  them  had  turned  yellow,  and  yet 
while  many  of  the  leaves  below  were  still  green.  At 
this  stage,  usually  about  the  middle  of  September  in 
the  Northern  States,  the  corn  itself  is  in  no  wise  in- 
jured by  being  harvested  and  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
nutriment  conserved  in  the  stalk.  Corn  stover,  being 
a  by-product,  has  a  low  commercial  value,  which 
makes  it  a  very  economical  food  for  beef  production. 
Wherever  corn  is  a  staple  crop,  the  stalk  as  well  as 
the  ear  should  be  utilized,  at  least  to  the  extent  that 
the  area  of  corn  grown  on  a  farm  does  not  exceed 
the  capacity  of  the  farm  for  stock  feeding.  Should 
soil  from  which  the  stalks  have  been  removed  blow 
badly,  as  in  drier  sections,  some  stalks  could  be 
left  standing  between  shock  rows. 

Shock  Corn  for  Winter  Feeding.— With  the  in- 
troduction of  the  modern  harvester,  which  cuts  and 
ties  in  bundles  of  convenient  size  corn  in  the  stalk, 
called  "fodder  corn,"  the  farmer  is  enabled  to  put  his 
crop  in  the  shock  usually  at  a  cost  not  to  exceed 
that  of  putting  husked  corn  in  the  crib.  With  the 
former  method,  the  stalk  is  put  where  at  least  three- 
fourths  of  the  nutriment  it  contained  at  harvesting 
time  is  carefully  preserved  for  winter  use,  and  the 
ear  is  protected  by  the  husk,  within  which  it  keeps 
fresh  and  much  softer  for  feeding  whole  than  is  ear 
corn.  Two-year-old  steers  do  not  find  it  difficult 
to  crush  the  ear,  grinding  husk,  cob  and  corn  to- 
gether, transferring  the  mixture  to  the  stomach 


FEEDING  RANGE  TWO-YEAR-OLDS.  179 

where,  owing  to  its  bulk,  it  is  easily  penetrated  by 
digestive  juices.  The  writer  during  several  years 
of  practical  experience  in  fattening  cattle  on  shock 
corn  has  never  had  cases  of  founder  or  undue 
scouring,  so  commonly  occurring  among  cattle 
heavily  fed  on  shelled  corn  or  corn  meal. 

Shock  corn  is  most  conveniently  fed  by  scatter- 
ing the  bundles  from  a  loaded  wagon  anywhere  in 
a  field  which  is  to  be  plowed  the  following  spring 
or  pastured.  The  bundles  need  not  be  broken  by 
cutting  the  twine.  If  fed  in  a  yard,  racks  with 
vertical  slats  sufficiently  wide  apart  to  give  room 
for  the  head  should  be  provided.  These  slats  prevent 
the  cattle  from  pulling  out  stalks. 

Supplementing  Shock  Corn. — While  this  fodder 
is  often  used  alone  for  fattening  purposes,  its 
deficiency  in  protein  makes  a  protein  supplement 
desirable.  Excellent  results  may  be  secured  by 
feeding  half  the  ration  of  corn  on  the  stalk,  the 
other  half  as  shelled  corn  or  corn  and  cob  meal  in 
which  is  mixed  a  portion — one-fifth  of  the  weight  of 
grain  thus  fed — of  either  oil  meal,  cottonseed  meal 
or  gluten  meal.  If  bran  can  be  purchased  at  a  price 
not  to  exceed  one-half  that  of  the  protein  foods  men- 
tioned, it  can  be  profitably  used  in  double  the  quan- 
tity. With  alfalfa  or  some  other  protein  roughage 
fed  in  connection  with  corn  fodder,  less  commercial 
protein  food  is  needed.  Had  the  lot  fed  corn,  alfalfa 
and  stover — the  most  profitable  ration  in  the  1905 
Nebraska  test — been  supplied  with  corn  fodder  in- 
stead of  stover,  that  much  husking  and  shelling 
would  have  been  saved  and  the  ration  would  doubt- 
less have  proved  still  more  economical.  In  feeding 
shock  corn  to  cattle  on  full  grain  feed,  inasmuch  as 
there  will  be  consumed  approximately  two  pounds 
pf  grain  to  one  of  roughage,  and  the  stalk  and  ear 


l8o        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

are  about  equal  in  weight,  not  more  than  one-half 
the  corn  should  be  fed  on  the  stalk  unless  stock  cat- 
tle can  be  conveniently  turned  in  later  to  make  use 
of  more  of  the  stalk.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  pigs 
should  be  kept  to  pick  up  all  waste  corn  in  the 
droppings.  The  profits  from  cattle  feeding  often 
come  from  the  pork  as  a  by-product.  Not  more 
than  one  pig  to  a  steer  will  be  needed. 

Snapped  corn,  which  is  the  unhusked  ear  broken 
from  the  stalk,  is  most  commonly  used  in  Western 
States,  where  the  stalks  instead  of  being  harvested  are 
pastured  in  the  field.  Snapped  corn  is  in  every  way 
a  very  satisfactory  food  for  fattening  cattle.  It  has 
all  the  merits  of  shock  corn,  being  less  cumbersome 
to  feed,  though  with  it  more  hay  or  other  rough  feed 
must  be  supplied  to  take  the  place  of  stalks.  Cattle 
feeders  not  infrequently  fatten  cattle  on  nothing  but 
snapped  corn,  depending  upon  husk  and  cob  to  fur- 
nish the  necessary  bulk.  This  is  perhaps  economical 
when  corn  is  low  in  price.  Under  average  market 
conditions,  however,  it  is  more  profitable  to  make  a 
larger  use  of  roughage,  and  so  long  as  the  stalks, 
well  cured,  are  nourishing  and  at  the  same  time  well 
relished,  it  would  seem  desirable  to  make  use  of 
them.  Stalks  left  uncut  in  the  field  lose  the  larger 
part  of  their  nutriment  by  exposure  and  by  a  grad- 
ual change  of  starch  to  the  more  indigestible  crude 
fiber.  While  some  use  is  made  of  the  "stalk  field," 
there  is  little  value  in  the  material  after  winter  sets 
in,  more  than  what  is  obtained  from  unhusked  nub- 
bins and  the  uppermost  leaves.  Snapped  corn  is 
usually  fed  in  ordinary  tight  bottomed  flat  bunks. 
The  difficulty  connected  with  the  continued  use  of 
snapped  corn  is  that  of  storage,  as  snapped  corn  in 
large  piles  sometimes  heats,  through  lack  of  proper 
air  circulation.  For  fall  and  early  winter  snapped 
corn  is  a  popular  Western  food.  It  should  be  fed 
with  alfalfa,  clover  or  cowpea  hay. 


FEEDING  RANGE  TWO-YEAR-OLDS.  l8l 

Sore  Mouths. — With  long  continued  feeding  on 
heavily  eared  corn  fodder  or  snapped  corn  a  little 
soreness  of  the  mouth  or  gums  sometimes  occurs, 
though  with  shock  corn  this  is  much  less  common 
than  with  husked  ears,  owing  to  the  hardness  of  the 
latter.  Should  any  individuals  show  soreness  by  a 
disposition  to  reject  ears  after  taking  them  into  the 
mouth,  they  had  better  be  separated  and  fed  corn 
meal  mixed  with  bran,  or  corn  and  cob  meal  for  a 
few  weeks,  or  until  the  soreness  disappears. 

Corn  silage,  so  valuable  for  dairy  cows,  is  also 
used  for  fattening  steers,  though  its  liberal  use  for 
that  purpose  is  not  to  be  recommended.  Ten  pounds 
of  silage  per  day  will  supply  all  the  bulk  and  water 
desirable  in  a  fattening  ration.  That  quantity,  no 
doubt,  would  prove  beneficial  because  of  its  cooling 
and  laxative  effect  upon  the  system.  The  economy  of 
using  silage  for  fattening  purposes,  particularly  with 
fairly  mature  cattle,  is  a  matter  of  doubt  in  the  mind 
of  the  writer.  In  the  West,  where  fodder  corn  is  in- 
expensive, it  hardly  seems  practicable  to  spend  much 
money  in  its  preparation.  Silos,  cutting  machines  and 
labor  in  preparing  corn  for  silage  cost  money,  more  in 
proportion  to  the  value  of  the  fodder  in  the  West  than 
in  the  East,  where  feed  is  costly  and  labor  on  a  par 
with  the  West.  If  a  silo  is  built  for  dairy  cows  it 
would  doubtless  be  worth  while  to  make  use  of  a 
small  quantity  of  silage  for  fattening  cattle. 

Sorghum  hay,  or  cane,  has  a  feeding  value  very 
similar  to  that  of  well  cured  corn  stover.  A  Ne- 
braska test  in  1905,  when  sorghum  hay  was  compared 
with  prairie  hay,  both  being  fed  with  corn  and  oil 
meal,  shows  sorghum  to  be  worth  $4.63  per  ton  in 
comparison  with  prairie  hay  worth  $6.  Sorghum  hay 
is  of  better  quality  for  feeding  purposes,  if  planted 
rather  thickly  to  make  the  stems  small  in  size.  This 


182        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

fodder  deteriorates  in  quality  exceedingly  if  left 
exposed  to  heavy  spring  rains. 

Timothy  hay,  as  has  been  intimated,  is  not  a  val- 
uable plant  for  cattle  feeding,  nor  can  it  be  profitably 
fed  at  average  market  prices.  Its  adaptability  for 
horses  gives  it  a  price  above  the  reach  of  the  cattle, 
feeder.  It  is  commonly  grown  with  clover  to  keep 
the  latter  from  lodging,  for  which  purpose  but  a  small 
quantity  of  seed  is  needed — -not  more  than  a  pint  per 
acre. 

Prairie  hay,  as  grown  uncultivated  on  the  West- 
ern plains,  has  a  composition  similar  to  timothy, 
though  its  analysis  is  unsatisfactory,  because  it  con- 
tains a  variety  of  grasses,  giving  it  a  variable  com- 
position. This  hay  is  less  expensive  than  timothy 
and  can  be  profitably  used  where  prairie  land  is  low 
in  price. 

Millet  is  often  grown  for  cattle  feeding,  usually 
because  it  yields  a  crop  quickly  and  produces  a  good 
tonnage  of  fodder.  Cattle  feeders,  as  a  rule,  are  not 
enthusiastic  over  millet,  because  it  is  very  apt  to  in- 
duce scours.  If  grown  for  feeding  purposes  it 
should  be  fed  with  some  other  roughage.  There 
is  little  reason  why  a  cattle  feeder  should  grow  a 
large  acreage  of  millet. 

Oat  straw  is  sometimes  made  the  sole  roughness 
for  fattening  cattle,  though  it  means  the  use  of  more 
grain.  Oat  straw  does  very  well  for  half  the  rough- 
age for  fattening  cattle  when  good  hay  is  difficult 
to  secure  at  moderate  prices. 

Wheat  straw  has  little  feeding  value — according 
to  Zuntz,  the  German  investigator,  no  more  than 
is  expended  in  its  mastication  and  partial  digestion. 
While  steers  force  themselves  to  eat  it  when  other 
roughage  is  not  furnished,  its  value  is  as  a  filler 
rather  than  as  a  source  of  nutriment.  It  would  be 
much  better  to  buy  hay  and  use  wheat  straw  for 


FEEDING  RANGE  TWO-YEAR-OLDS.  183 

bedding  than  to  feed  the  straw  and  have  insufficient 
bedding  material. 

Flax  straw  often  contains  some  of  the  seed  and 
may  be  successfully  used  in  feeding  operations.  It 
is  relished  by  cattle  and  seems  to  have  considerable 
nutritive  value,  at  least  more  than  oat  or  wheat 
straw. 

Beet  pulp  has  recently  been  tested  at  the  Colo- 
rado and  Utah  Stations.  In  Colorado  two-year-old 
steers  ate  123  pounds  of  pulp  in  connection  with  12.5 
pounds  of  alfalfa,  and  gained  on  this  1.57  pounds 
per  day  at  a  cost  of  $3.79  per  hundred  pounds,  of 
gain.  By  feeding  corn  the  gain  was  2  pounds  per 
day,  but  the  cost  was  increased  to  $5.93  per  hundred 
pounds  of  gain.  At  the  Utah  Station  there  were 
required  31.4  pounds  of  pulp  and  11.5  pounds  of 
alfalfa  for  one  pound  of  gain.  With  alfalfa  worth 
$3.50  per  ton  and  beet  pulp  50  cents,  the  cost  of  one 
hundred  pounds  of  gain  was  only  $2.80. 

Roots  are  extensively  grown  in  European  coun- 
tries for  feeding  beef  cattle  as  well  as  dairy  stock. 
They  are  always  sliced  before  feeding,  which  labor  of 
preparation,  with  the  cost  of  growing^  and  harvest- 
ing the  crop,  makes  them  impracticable  for  Amer- 
ican conditions,  at  least  in  the  corn  belt,  where  any 
desirable  succulence  may  be  furnished  more  cheaply 
with  corn  silage.  Ten  pounds  of  roots  per  day  for 
a  fattening  steer  are  unquestionably  beneficial,  and 
were  it  not  for  the  expense,  they  would  doubtless 
be  grown  for  that  purpose.  Of  the  root  crops  the 
mangel  is  most  in  favor,  considering  both  yield  and 
food  value. 

Feeding  Three-year-old  Range  Steers  in  Winter. 
— The  method  of  feeding  this  class  of  cattle  is 
so  similar  to  the  feeding  of  two-year-olds  that  little 
need  be  said  more  than  to  suggest  that  older  and 
more  mature  cattle  require  a  little  less  protein. 


184  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

Where,  for  example,  a  two-year-old  would  make 
profitable  gains  on  oil  meal  to  the  extent  of  12  per 
cent  of  the  grain  ration,  with  corn  and  prairie  or 
timothy  hay,  the  three-year-old  would  do  well  on 
8  or  10  per  cent.  Three-year-old  range  steers, 
while  requiring  more  feed  for  a  given  gain  than 
younger  cattle,  are  sometimes  fed  with  as  much 
profit,  because  the  advance  in  selling  price  over  cost 
price  is  made  on  a  larger  initial  weight. 

Cattle  should  be  sold  when  they  show  finish. — It 
is  not  profitable  to  hold  cattle  after  they  have  suffi- 
cient finish  to  make  them  bring  a  reasonably  good 
figure  on  the  market.  Two-year-old  steers,  in  a 
1905  Nebraska  test,  dropped  from  an  average  gain 
of  about  2  pounds  per  day  during  the  fifth  month 
to  less  than  il/2  pounds  the  sixth  month,  at  the 
end  of  which  time  they  topped  the  market.  A 
longer  period  would  have  been  a  disastrous  loss. 
The  best  period  of  feeding  can  not  be  stated  in 
months.  Cattle  should  be  sold  when  they  show  suffi- 
cient fat  to  give  fullness  in  the  purse,  or  scrotum 
sack,  and  underneath  the  throat;  when  the  flank 
bunches  as  the  animal  walks,  and  there  is  noticeable 
over  most  of  the  frame  a  fairly  thick  covering  of 
flesh.  There  is  often  apparent  to  the  eye  a  padding 
moving  back  and  forth  on  the  side  of  the  shoulder 
during  locomotion,  which  serves  as  an  index.  These 
indications,  while  difficult  to  describe,  become 
familiar  to  the  feeder  after  a  few  years'  experience. 

Shipment  of  Cattle. — About  two  days  previous  to 
shipment  the  grain  should  be  reduced  one-third  and 
the  following  day  another  third,  the  hay  being  in- 
creased correspondingly.  By  feeding  the  cattle  on 
hay — preferably  prairie  or  timothy — with  little  or 
no  grain,  there  will  be  much  less  scouring  and  a 
lighter  shrinkage. 

The  practice  of  withholding  water  from  cattle  some 


FEEDING  RANGE  TWO-YEAR-OLDS.  185 

time  before  shipment,  in  order  that  they  may  be 
famishing  for  drink  after  they  reach  the  stock  yards, 
thus  taking  on  a  heavier  "fill,"  is  a  most  cruel  one. 
Cattle  sometimes  reach  the  chutes  too  weak  to  stand, 
suffering  intensely  from  thirst.  Men  who  treat  their 
stock  in  this  manner  have  no  business  owning  stock 
of  any  description,  and  if  they  insist  upon  shipping, 
proper  laws  should  be  enacted  to  protect  their  stock. 
Fortunately,  the  packers  discount  cattle  filled  as  de- 
scribed, though  it  takes  some  men  a  long  time  to  find 
it  out.  Cattle  that  have  water  before  them  up  to 
loading  do  not  ordinarily  drink  to  excess  unless 
driven  a  long  distance  on  a  hot  day,  when  it  could 
be  limited. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

CORN    SUBSTITUTES,    PROTEIN    CONCEN- 
TRATES, AND  THE  PREPARATION   OF 
FOODS  FOR  FATTENING  CATTLE. 

Kafir  corn  will  stand  much  drier  weather  than 
common  corn,  for  which  reason  it  is  more  success- 
fully grown  than  corn  in  semiarid  regions.  At  the 
Kansas  Experiment  Station,  Kafir  corn  was  found 
to  be  6  per  cent  below  corn  in  feeding  value.  Owing 
to  the  hardness  of  the  seeds,  this  grain  should  be 
ground  or  soaked  before  feeding. 

Sorghum,  or  cane,  will  also  stand  more  dry 
weather  than  corn,  but  the  seeds  are  less  commonly 
used  for  fattening  purposes  than  are  the  seeds  of 
Kafir  corn.  The  two  are  similar  in  composition  and 
nearly  equal  in  feeding  value  for  steers. 

Barley,  when  ground,  can  be  used  in  a  steer's  ra- 
tion, either  alone  or  with  corn.  The  latter  is 
preferable.  Barley  is  not  so  well  relished,  and  is, 
if  anything,  a  little  below  corn  in  feeding  value, 
though  the  two  are  similar  in  composition. 

Wheat  meal  was  compared  with  corn  meal  in  a 
Nebraska  test,  1901-02.  To  make  the  wheat  less 
sticky,  one-fifth  bran  was  used  in  both  lots  and  later 
oil  meal.  In  the  comparison,  wheat  gave  5  per  cent 
larger  gains  than  corn.  At  the  Ohio  Station,  corn 
meal  alone  gave  7  per  cent  larger  gains  for  food 
consumed  than  wheat  meal  alone.  It  would  seem  safe 
to  conclude  that  they  are  about  equal  in  value,  and 
whenever  wheat  can  be  purchased  at  corn  prices, 
which  seldom  happens,  it  may  be  fed. 

Oats,  though  more  bulky  than  corn,  are  very  use- 
1*6 


CORN  SUBSTITUTES  FOR  CATTLE.        187 

ful  for  cattle  feeding,  especially  for  young  stock. 
They  are  less  fattening,  which,  with  their  bulk, 
makes  them  more  useful  as  an  adjunct  than  as  a 
substitute  for  corn.  Their  feeding  value  is  no  higher, 
pound  for  pound,  than  corn,  and  they  are  usually 
more  costly  per  hundred,  which  makes  them  more 
expensive  to  feed.  Oats,  though  richer  in  protein 
than  corn,  are  hardly  to  be  classed  among  protein 
foods.  They  are  a  most  excellent  feed,  when  the 
price  will  permit  their  use. 

Commercial  Protein  Foods. — What  has  been  said 
concerning  supplemental  protein  foods  for  dairy  cat- 
tle applies  also  to  fattening  cattle.  They  are  all 
useful,  and  the  matter  of  choice  depends  entirely 
upon  current  prices,  assuming  the  foods  are  equal 
in  quality. 

Cottonseed  meal,  while  richer  in  protein  than 
oil  meal,  is  perhaps  more  often  inferior  in  quality. 
There  are  not  sufficient  experimental  data  on  record 
to  warrant  one  in  placing  a  value  above  the  others 
upon  any  one  of  these  concentrated  foods,  cotton- 
seed meal,  oil  meal,  gluten  meal  or  soy  bean  meal, 
though  the  composition  indicates  an  advantage  for 
cottonseed  meal. 

Bran  is  an  excellent  food  material  because  of  its 
"corrective"  qualities  as  well  as  protein  content,  and 
is  particularly  useful  as  a  part  of  a  heavy  grain 
ration.  Frequently,  however,  the  price  of  bran  is  such 
as  to  make  it  much  more  costly  per  hundred  weight 
of  protein  than  the  concentrated  foods  previously 
mentioned.  It  would  not  be  safe  to  give  bran  a 
value  per  ton  to  exceed  one-half  that  of  oil  meal  or 
other  foods  of  that  class.  Shorts  are  still  higher  in 
price  than  bran  and  rather  too  sticky  for  cattle. 

Condimental  Stock  Foods. — These  foods  are  dis- 
cussed freely  in  the  last  chapter  on  dairy  cattle  and  the 


188  PROFITABLE   STOCK   FEEDING. 

conclusions  are  as  applicable  to  fattening  cattle.  The 
Iowa  Station,  after  very  careful  experimentation, 
found  them  entirely  too  costly  to  be  economically 
used  for  steer  feeding. 

Grinding  grain  for  fattening  cattle  undoubtedly 
saves  some  feed,  though  this  saving  is  not  ordi- 
narily great  enough  to  pay  for  the  grinding.  At  the 
Kansas  Station  8  per  cent  was  saved,  which  would 
be  considered  a  good  showing,  yet  this  saving  would 
mean  but  4^  pounds  of  corn  to  the  bushel — with 
corn  high  in  price,  perhaps  enough  to  pay  the  grind- 
ing bill,  but  not  the  labor.  In  the  case  of  sore 
mouths  or  when  a  quick  finish  is  sought,  or  with 
cholera  too  prevalent  to  make  the  keeping  of  pigs  for 
running  behind  cattle  safe,  grinding  is  practicable. 
The  feasibility  of  grinding,  therefore,  depends  en- 
tirely upon  circumstances,  but  for  Western  condi- 
tions it  is  not  ordinarily  profitable  to  grind  corn  for 
cattle. 

Crushing  corn  in  the  husk  by  means  of  a  machine 
for  that  purpose  is  often  practical,  because  it 
breaks  the  ears  enough  to  make  mastication  easier 
and  at  the  same  time  costs  but  little — with  a  large 
crusher  from  one  to  two  cents  per  bushel.  Crushed 
corn  has  all  the  advantages  of  snapped  corn  and 
corn  on  the  stalk,  and  it  can  be  fed  to  small  cattle 
as  well  as  large.  The  use  of  the  crusher  will  with- 
out a  doubt  become  more  general  among  cattle 
feeders. 

Cutting  up  corn  fodder  by  means  of  an  ensilage 
cutter  is  practiced  successfully,  and  such  fodder  is 
excellent  for  cattle  too  small  to  feed  upon  whole 
ear  corn  in  the  stalk. 

Shredding  corn  stover  is  usually  done  in  connec- 
tion with  husking  by  machinery.  Shredded  stover  is 
more  completely  consumed  than  unshredded,  and 
has  a  somewhat  higher  food  value  because  of  its 


CORN  SUBSTITUTES  FOR  CATTLE.        189 

mechanical  condition,  though  its  extra  value  will 
hardly  give  remuneration  for  the  labor  involved  in 
shredding.  If  stalks  can  be  shredded  at  a  very 
slight  cost  above  the  expense  of  getting  the  corn 
husked  it  may  pay.  It  is  excellent  material  for 
feeding  in  barns,  inasmuch  as  the  waste  is  very  use- 
ful for  bedding  stalls,  in  addition  to  the  fact  that 
shredded  stover  is  more  conveniently  handled  in- 
side. For  outdoor  feeding  it  would  be  unwise  to  go 
to  the  expense  of  shredding  corn  stover  for  steers 
two  years  old  or  older.  The  lower  third  of  the  corn 
stalk  does  not  possess  a  nutritive  value  equal  to  the 
energy  expended  in  "trying"  to  digest  it.  To  at- 
tempt to  force  cattle  to  clean  up  these  inert  stubs 
is  to  put  upon  them  unnecessary  and  unprofitable 
work.  The  upper  part  can  be  masticated  more  cheaply 
by  these  older  cattle  than  it  can  be  cut  up  by  ma- 
chinery. 

Cutting  or  chaffing  hay  and  straw  is  practiced 
more  largely  in  Europe  than  in  America.  The  ex- 
pense of  such  work  is  so  great  in  comparison  with  the 
original  value  of  the  roughage  and  the  added  value  of 
the  fodder  that  the  practice  is  unprofitable  for  Mid- 
dlewest  and  Western  conditions. 

Farm  animals  are  equipped  for  masticating  most 
foods  in  the  crude  state,  and,  thus  equipped,  they 
are  able  to  do  the  necessary  mechanical  work  at  less 
cost  than  it  can  be  done  by  purchased  power.  Some 
seeds  are  too  small  and  hard  to  be  fed  whole,  but 
fodder  plants,  as  a  rule,  are  more  profitably  used 
whole,  which  will  be  true  as  long  as  labor  is  costly 
and  roughage  is  low  in  price. 


190 


PROFITABLE   STOCK   FEEDING. 


Range-cattle  Scenes  in  Western  Nebraska. 


PART  IV 

SHEEP 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

MUTTON  TYPE. 

Outlook  for  Sheep  Favorable. — There  is  a  grow- 
ing tendency  on  the  part  of  the  public  to  consume 
more  mutton.  This  may  be  due  in  part  to  the  fact 
that  mutton  carcasses  are  more  carefully  dressed  and 
better  ripened  than  formerly,  but  more  likely  it  is 
both  because  a  better  grade  of  mutton  sheep  is 
being  produced  and  because  it  is  marketed  earlier 
than  was  the  case  several  years  ago.  During  former 
years  when  wool  was  higher  in  price,  the  country 
was  largely  stocked  with  fine-wooled  sheep  of  the 
distinctively  wool  breeds.  These  sheep  were  retained 
on  the  farms  perhaps  several  years  for  the  annual 
clip  of  wool,  and  when  finally  placed  upon  the 
market  had  become  so  aged  as  to  make  the  meat 
tough,  as  well  as  strongly  flavored.  With  lower 
prices  for  wool,  there  have  come  about  marked 
changes  in  the  character  of  flocks.  Rams  of  the 
mutton  breeds,  including  the  Shropshire,  South- 
down, Hampshire,  Cotswold,  Oxford,  Lincoln,  and 
Leicester,  have  been  crossed  upon  native  fine-wooled 
ewes,  resulting  in  a  good  quality  of  mutton  stock. 
These  crossbred  mutton  sheep  do  not  produce  so  heavy 
a  fleece  as  do  the  Merino,  and  at  prevailing  prices  for 
wool  it  is  not  profitable  to  carry  them  over  for  their 
second  clip  and  the  little  increase  in  weight;  but 

191 


192         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

their  points  of  excellence  for  mutton  production  are 
so  much  greater  than  their  deficiencies  for  wool 
production  in  comparison  with  the  Merino,  that 
they  are  now  in  greater  favor.  Merino  ewes  of 
improved  strains  are  still  preferred  for  range  con- 
ditions, because  they  not  only  shear  a  heavier  fleece 
but  their  dense,  fine  wool  and  smaller  frames  make 
them  better  able  to  withstand  the  hardships  of 
the  range.  With  the  more  recent  advance  in  the 
price  of  wool,  there  is  now  a  tendency  upon  the  part 
of  farmers  to  retain  in  the  breeding  ewes  somewhat 
more  of  the  Merino  blood,  depending  upon  the 
heavy  mutton  rams  to  produce  a  type  of  lamb  which 
has  proved  very  satisfactory  in  the  feed-lot,  though 
somewhat  smaller  than  higher  grades  of  mutton 
stock. 

Another  favorable  sign,  for  at  least  the  immediate 
future  of  the  sheep  industry,  is  the  fact  that  the 
number  of  sheep  in  all  parts  of  the  world  has  not 
kept  pace  with  the  increase  of  population.  The  de- 
cline in  number  is  perhaps  greatest  in  Australia, 
which  is  largely  attributable  to  the  unprecedented 
drouth  in  that  country.  Argentina  seems  to  be  the 
only  country  showing  an  increase  in  the  number 
of  sheep.  Whereas  in  1870  there  was  one  sheep 
for  every  inhabitant  of  the  globe,  in  1900  there 
was  but  one  sheep  for  every  two  people. 

Familiarity  With  the  Habits  of  Sheep  Essential 
to  Success. — With  present  conditions  more  favor- 
able for  mutton  production,  it  is  well  worth  the  while 
of  the  farmer  or  stockman  to  acquaint  himself  with 
the  best  methods  of  handling  sheep.  No  farm  animal 
is  less  understood  by  the  masses,  in  the  West  at 
least,  simply  because  they  are  handled  by  what  may 
be  termed  "sheep  feeding  specialists." 

Sheep  are  different  from  cattle  and  swine  in  their 
habits  and  characteristics.  A  man  eminently  success- 


MUTTON    TYPE.  IQ3 

ful  in  rearing  and  fattening  either  of  these  classes 
might  easily  fail  with  sheep.  At  most,  the  highest 
success  cannot  reasonably  be  expected  without  first 
giving  the  business  careful  study  or  without  spending 
several  years  in  gaining  experience.  The  former 
method  is  less  expensive  and  brings  quicker  returns, 
though  some  personal  experience  is  an  aid  to  the  most 
carefully  instructed.  It  would  not  be  considered  ad- 
visable for  an  inexperienced  sheep  raiser,  no  matter 
how  thoroughly  he  has  posted  himself  on  the  ins  and 
outs  of  the  business,  to  begin  on  a  large  scale.  He 
would  better  enlarge  his  business  as  he  finds  himself 
capable,  because  there  is  so  much  at  stake  in  conduct- 
ing large  feeding  operations  that  even  a  slight  error 
might  result  in  a  considerable  loss. 

The  Temperament  of  Sheep. — Sheep  are  natu 
rally  timid  in  disposition,  and  a  sudden  disturbance 
of  any  kind,  as  the  bark  of  a  dog  or  any  sharp  noise, 
will  sometimes  create  a  panic  in  the  entire  flock. 
Sheep,  through  fright,  have  been  known  to  crowd 
together  so  closely  as  to  cause  some  to  die  from 
smothering.  Care  should  therefore  be  taken  to 
avoid  unnecessary  disturbances  of  any  sort  which 
will  cause  fright,  resulting  in  no  little  shrinkage  on 
the  entire  flock,  if  not  mortality.  Some  flock- 
masters,  to  avoid  startling  their  sheep,  make  a  prac- 
tice of  whistling  or  talking  to  them,  as  they  ap- 
proach unexpectedly. 

The  Dog  Difficulty. — The  unusual  timidity  of 
sheep  makes  raising  them  in  some  localities  un- 
satisfactory because  of  troublesome  dogs.  One  dog, 
entering  a  flock,  will  start  the  entire  number  on  a 
run  across  the  field,  and,  if  the  chase  is  continued, 
several  will  die  from  exhaustion  and  others  will 
shrink  badly  in  weight.  Dogs  not  uncommonly  en- 
ter fields  during  the  night  and  run  down  sheep, 
tearing  the  skin  with  their  teeth — perhaps  killing 


194  PROFITABLE    STOCK    FEEDING. 

several — simply  for  the  pleasure  of  doing  something 
vicious.  Some  states  have  laws  which  provide  a 
tax  upon  all  dogs  owned  in  a  township,  the  fund 
accruing  therefrom  being  used  to  pay  sheep-killing 
losses,  when  the  owner  of  the  dog  is  not  known 
or  does  not  have  sufficient  means  to  make  good 
the  loss.  Where  it  is  not  practicable  to  keep  a  night- 
watch  for  dogs,  the  simplest  remedy  is  to  attach  a 
string  to  a  piece  of  fresh  meat  and  drag  it  across  the 
field,  leaving  it  at  the  end  of  the  trail  charged  with 
a  good  dose  of  some  deadly  poison,  strychnine  being 
most  effective.  Strange  dogs  entering  the  field  will 
immediately  scent  the  fresh  meat,  and  following  the 
trail,  will  soon  get  the  poison,  which  invariably  has 
the  intended  effect.  During  the  practice  of  such  a 
method,  any  valuable  dogs  belonging  to  the  owner  of 
the  sheep  must,  of  course,  be  tied  up.  Billy-goats  do 
not  ordinarily  run  from  dogs,  and  one  or  two  are 
sometimes  kept  in  a  flock  of  sheep  to  prevent  losses. 
Where  the  goats  can  be  taught  to  stay  with  the  flock, 
this  method  often  succeeds,  although  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  rear  the  young  goats  with  the  sheep  to  teach 
them  to  remain  with  the  flock  at  all  times,  that  they 
may  be  present  when  protection  is  needed.  Sheep 
and  goats  do  not  interbreed. 

Coyotes  and  Wolves. — In  parts  of  the  West, 
coyotes  and  wolves  give  the  same  trouble,  and  some 
such  method  as  has  been  suggested  for  dogs  must  be 
practiced  with  them.  A  number  of  bells  of  consider- 
able size  and  volume  attached  by  neck  straps  to  the 
strongest  sheep  have  proved  successful  in  keeping 
coyotes  away,  and  they  have  sometimes  proved  ef- 
fective with  dogs. 

Mutton  Type. — In  the  profitable  production  of 
mutton,  type  is  a  factor,  as  in  beef  production, 
though  the  markets  do  not  discriminate  so  closely 
between  types  of  sheep  as  between  types  of  cattle, 


MUTTON   TYPE. 


195 


relatively  more  importance  being  given  to  condition, 
or  fatness,  in  sheep.  The  covering  of  wool  makes  it 
difficult  for  a  buyer  to  judge  conformation  accu- 
rately without  handling,  which  would  be  a  tedious 
process  with  a  large  number  of  sheep.  From  the 
butcher's  point  of  view,  the  fat  sheep  should  resem- 
ble in  a  general  way  the  form  of  a  fat  steer.  There 
should  be  breadth  of  back  and  loin  and  thickness  of 
covering  over  these  parts.  The  hind  quarter  of  the 
sheep,  including  the  rump  and  thighs,  called  the 
leg  of  mutton,  is  one  of  the  highest  priced  cuts  in 
the  carcass,  higher  proportionately  than  the  same 
cut  in  the  beef  carcass,  for  which  reason  it  is  espe- 
cially important  that  sheep  should  have  full,  wide 
rumps  and  full,  deep  thighs.  Broad  and  deep  chests 
and  large  heart  girths  are  equally  as  important  in 
sheep  as  in  cattle,  inasmuch  as  fullness  in  that 
region  means  greater  constitutional  vigor  and 
greater  gaining  capacity. 


Ewes  and  Lambs  in  Pasture. 


196        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

The  following  score-card  suggested  by  Craig  for 
mutton  sheep  is  in  use  among  agricultural  colleges. 
The  relative  importance  of  different  parts  is  shown 
by  the  numerical  values  assigned  to  each: 

Scale  of  Points  for  Mutton  Sheep — Wether: 

Perfect 
Score. 

General  appearance: 

Weight,  according  to  age 8 

Form,  long,  low,  symmetrical,  compact 5 

Quality,  clean  bone,  silky  hair,  fine  skin,  yielding  large 

percentage   of  meat    8 

Condition,  deep,  even  covering  of  firm  flesh,  especially  in 

regions   of   valuable    cuts 8 

Head  and  neck: 

Muzzle,  fine;  mouth  large;  lips  thin;  nostrils  large 1 

Eyes,  bright,  full    1 

Face,  short,  clean  cut  features 1 

Forehead,  broad  1 

Ears,   fine,    erect 1 

Neck,  thick,  short   1 

Forequarters : 

Shoulder  vein,  full , 1 

Shoulders,  covered,  compact 1 

Chest,  wide,   deep    , 2 

Brisket,  projecting  forward;   breast  wide 1 

Legs,  straight,  short,  wide  apart,  strong;    foresrm  full; 

shank  smooth    2 

Body: 

Back,  straight,  long,  wide;  ribs  arched 10 

Loin,  thick,   broad,   long 10 

Flank,  low,  thick,  making  underline  straight 2 

Hindquarters : 

Hips,  far  apart,  smooth   1 

Eump,  long,   level,  wide    4 

Thighs,  full   4 

Twist,  plump,  deep 4 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong ;  shank  smooth 2 

Constitution : 

Girth,  large;   fore  flank  full 3 

Skin,    pink    color    2 

Fleece,  dense  and  even  over  body;  yolk  abundant 4 

Wool: 

Quantity,   long,   dense,   even 4 

Quality,'  fine,  soft,  pure,  even 4 

Condition,   bright,   strong,   clean 4 

Total  .  ..100 


MUTTON   TYPE.  IQ7 

The  score-card  is  particularly  useful  to  the  man 
who  selects  a  ram  for  a  breeding  flock.  If  by  select- 
ing a  good  ram,  10  per  cent  is  added  to  the  profits  on 
each  of  his  lambs  by  virtue  of  better  feeding  and 
killing  qualities  inherited,  enough  larger  revenues 
may  be  secured  in  one  year  to  pay  the  extra  consid- 
eration. In  using  the  score-card  as  a  guide  in  judg- 
ing sheep,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  depend  upon 
the  hands.  The  wool  of  the  sheep,  being  variable  in 
length,  may  cover  up  imperfections  or  may  give  the 
sheep  an  appearance  which  does  him  injustice.  A 
flockmaster  skilful  in  trimming  wool  is  often  able  to 
give  an  inferior  sheep  the  appearance  of  being  good 
in  form.  Pressing  the  palms  of  the  hands  closely 
against  the  body  of  the  sheep  at  all  parts  is  the  only 
thorough  method  to  pursue.  With  practice  a  suffi- 
cient degree  of  accuracy  in  judging  mutton  type 
may  be  obtained  to  be  of  great  assistance  to  one 
engaged  in  sheep  raising. 

Digestive  Capacity  of  Sheep. — In  their  capacity 
to  consume  food,  sheep  resemble  cattle.  They  have 
the  four  stomachs,  one  connected  with  another,  the 
paunch,  or  first,  being  very  capacious,  so  that  large 
quantities  of  bulky  food,  like  hay,  can  be  digested  and 
assimilated.  It  is  customary  to  figure  that  eight  or 
ten  average-sized  sheep  will  consume  as  much  as  one 
two-year-old  steer.  The  proportion  of  roughness  to 
grain  most  suitable  for  fattening  sheep  is  about  the 
same  as  for  fattening  cattle,  though  sheep  will  fatten 
upon  a  somewhat  larger  proportion  of  hay.  On  ac- 
count of  their  smaller  size  they  consume  less  perfectly 
the  coarsest  fodder,  as  whole  cornstalks,  for  which 
reason  such  fodder  is  sometimes  first  run  through  a 
cutting  machine.  Sheep  grind  their  food,  however, 
much  more  thoroughly  than  do  cattle,  thus  making  it 
possible  to  feed  grain  without  first  grinding  or  soak- 
ing it. 


198 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE  FARMER'S  BREEDING  FLOCK. 

Fences. — In  the  West,  farms  are  often  not  prop- 
erly fenced  for  pasturing  a  breeding  flock  of  ewes. 
The  ordinary  two  or  three  strand  barbed  wire  cattle 
fence  will  not  hold  sheep.  If  the  lower  wires  are 
farther  apart  than  six  inches,  sheep  are  likely  to  crowd 
between.  Their  heavy  covering  of  wool  prevents 
them  from  being  badly  scratched,  on  account  of  which 
barbs  are  less  effective  than  with  other  classes  of  farm 
animals.  Five  strands  of  well-stretched  barbed  wire, 
five,  six,  seven,  eight,  and  ten  inches  apart,  those 
closest  being  at  the  bottom,  will  turn  sheep,  and  a 
sixth  wire  one  foot  above  will  make  it  suitable  also 
for  cattle.  For  lambs  the  wires  should  not  be  more 
than  four  inches  apart.  Any  barbed  wire  fence  will 
mean  the  loss  of  more  or  less  wool.  The  most  satis- 
factory fence  for  sheep,  although  it  is  a  little  more 
expensive,  is  one  of  the  approved  woven  wire  pat- 
terns. A  24-inch  strip  of  woven  wire  at  the  bottom 
with  two  strands  of  barbed  wire  above  is  adequate 
for  both  cattle  and  sheep.  The  fence  difficulty,  to- 
gether with  the  fact  that  dogs  and  coyotes  are  trou- 
blesome, makes  sheep  breeding  in  some  sections  of 
the  West  impracticable,  at  least  temporarily  so. 
Should  the  farmer  be  able  to  overcome  these  diffi- 
culties, he  will  find  a  moderate-sized  flock  of  breed- 
ing ewes  profitable  and  otherwise  desirable.  The 
annual  clip  of  wool  marketed  each  spring  gives  him 
a  little  ready  cash  at  that  season,  and  more  revenue 
follows  when  the  lambs  are  ready  to  sell  in  the  fall 
or  winter. 

•99 


2OO        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

Sheep  as  Weed  Eradicators. — From  a  secondary 
point  of  view,  sheep  are  extremely  valuable  as  weed 
destroyers,  for  no  other  farm  animals  will  consume 
certain  weeds  with  such  apparent  relish  as  will 
sheep.  For  turning  into  stubble-fields  they  are  use- 
ful, because  they  eat  both  weeds  and  certain  in- 
ferior grass  plants  which  cattle  refuse.  They  seem 
particularly  fond  of  ragweed.  Pastures  badly  in- 
fested with  weeds  can  often  be  cleared  entirely  of 
the  noxious  plants  by  turning  in  a  flock 'of  sheep  for 
one  or  two  seasons.  There  is  a  popular  notion  that 
sheep  are  hard  upon  pasture  grasses,  because  they 
crop  close  to  the  ground.  They  do  this  when  com- 
pelled to  on  account  of  a  scarcity  of  vegetation,  but 
do  not  injure  pastures  if  the  fields  are  not  exces- 
sively stocked.  On  the  contrary,  they  improve 
them  by  keeping  down  weeds  which  would  choke 
out  the  grass  if  allowed  to  grow. 

Pasturing  Sheep  With  Cattle. — Many  farmers 
run  both  sheep  and  cattle  in  the  same  pasture  with 
satisfactory  results  although  there  is  a  popular  preju- 
dice against  the  practice.  There  is  little  objection  to 
this  when  the  fields  are  large,  though  cattle  no 
doubt  do  observe  that  the  industrious  sheep  have 
hunted  out  and  devoured  the  tenderest  grasses  and 
clovers,  and  they  do  not  eat  with  quite  the  relish 
they  otherwise  would,  which  is  a  matter  of  impor- 
tance where  an  effort  is  being  made  to  secure  large 
gains  with  cattle  on  grass. 

Character  of  the  Breeding  Flock. — For  produc- 
ing market  lambs,  none  other  than  strong,  vigorous 
ewes,  possessing  good  teeth,  should  be  kept.  When 
a  ewe  reaches  the  age  of  seven  or  eight  years,  some 
teeth  are  likely  to  be  missing,  and  the  ewe  is  probably 
otherwise  impaired.  Let  such  be  marketed  off  grass, 
or  perhaps  finished  with  a  little  grain,  if  the  mouth  is 
in  fairly  good  condition.  The  ewes  retained  should  be 


FARMER  S   BREEDING   FLOCK. 


201 


regular  breeders  and  reasonably  prolific.  Those  hav- 
ing a  predominance  of  Shropshire  or  Hampshire  blood 
or  the  blood  of  some  other  so-called  mutton  breeds  will 
produce  a  higher  percentage  of  lambs  than  will  the 
Merino.  However,  crossbred  Merino-Shropshire 
ewes  are  known  to  be  prolific,  and  fine-wooled  ewes, 
such  as  the  Merino,  as  already  mentioned,  shear 
more  wool,  which  is  a  point  very  much  in  their 
favor.  Everything  considered,  fine-wooled  ewes  hav- 
ing a  considerable  infusion  of  the  blood  of  the  mutton 


Shropshire  Ram  and  Range-bred  Shropshire-Merino  Ewes. 

breeds,  such  as  Shropshire  and  Hampshire,  are  most 
satisfactory.  Under  favorable  conditions,  from  a  hun- 
dred to  a  hundred  and  fifty  lambs  can  be  had  from  one 
hundred  such  ewes,  and  a  fleece  of  from  eight  to  ten 
pounds  from  each  of  such  a  flock  is  not  unusual.  As 
fast  as  old  ewes  are  culled  out,  young  ones  may  be 
purchased  to  replace  them,  or  ewe  lambs  may  be  re- 
tained. It  is  not  advisable  to  breed  young  ewes  until 
they  are  past  one  year  of  age,  because  too  early 


2O2 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


motherhood  has  a  tendency  to  prevent  the  full  de- 
velopment of  the  animal. 

The  period  of  gestation  with  a  sheep  is  five 
months,  or,  to  be  more  accurate,  an  average  of  152 
days.  The  best  time  for  breeding  will  depend  upon 
housing  facilities  during  the  lambing  season  and  upon 
local  market  conditions. 

Winter  or  Hothouse  Lambs. — In  some  of  our 
Eastern  states  there  has  recently  developed  the  busi- 


Photo  by  Gazette. 
"Baby  Mutton  in  February."     A.  J.  French, Wakeman,   Ohio. 

ness  of  raising  so-called  hothouse  lambs  for  the  grat- 
ification of  the  more  wealthy  classes.  Ewes  are  bred 
to  produce  lambs  early  in  December,  which  lambs  are 
rapidly  fattened  and  made  to  weigh  40  or  50  pounds 
each,  at  the  age  of  three  months,  when  they  are  sold. 
A  ewe  which  will  give  a  liberal  flow  of  milk  is  most 
desirable.  For  this  reason  the  Dorset  Horn  or 
crossbred  Dorset-Merino  ewes  are  in  favor.  They 
are  heavy  milkers  and  are  also  more  likely  to  breed  at 
the  proper  season  for  producing  such  lambs.  The 


FARMER'S  BREEDING  FLOCK.  203 

Hampshire  is  also  recognized  as  a  breed  suitable  for 
the  production  of  such  early  lambs,  though  the  Hamp- 
shire lamb  ripens  later  and  attains  to  heavier  weights 
than  the  fancy  trade  desires.  The  ewe's  milk  is  some- 
times reinforced  by  cow's  milk.  Corn  and  a  small 
proportion  of  other  grains  are  fed  liberally  as  early  as 
the  lambs  can  be  taught  to  eat,  and  the  best  kind  of 
shelter  is  provided.  Lambs  reared  in  this  way  are 
dressed  and  sent  by  express  into  the  city  where  they 
find  their  way  to  the  largest  hotels  and  a  few  of  the 
most  wealthy  families.  Because  of  their  tender  flesh 
they  command  a  high  figure.  Twenty-five  cents  per 
pound,  dressed,  is  not  an  extraordinary  price  for  such 
lambs. 

This  particular  branch  of  the  sheep  business  is  not 
likely  to  become  extensive,  except  in  certain  localities 
where  market  conditions  are  favorable  for  it,  and  in 
those  places,  curiously  enough,  it  has  not  yet  been 
overdone. 

Early  Spring  Lambs. — For  producing  a  lamb 
which  can  be  made  ready  for  the  early  fall  market, 
February  and  March  are  the  popular  months.  The 
ram  is  turned  with  the  flock  of  ewes  in  September  for 
February  lambs.  Should  one  ram  be  used  for  fifty 
ewes,  it  is  desirable  that  he  be  left  with  them  not  longer 
than  twelve  hours  each  day,  as  in  this  way  his  breed- 
ing power  is  better  conserved,  and  the  lambs  will  be 
stronger  at  birth. 

Since  it  is  an  established  fact  that  a  larger  percent- 
age of  lambs  will  be  produced  if  the  ewes  are  well 
nourished  during  the  breeding  season,  gaining 
rather  than  losing  in  flesh,  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  pasture  does  not  become  scanty.  A  little  grain 
may  be  supplied  each  day,  if  for  any  reason  the 
grass  becomes  short  at  a  time  when  the  ewes  are 
being  bred. 

Winter  Feed  for  Breeding    Ewes. — During   the 


2O4  PROFITABLE   STOCK   FEEDING. 

winter  months  it  is  better  economy  to  feed  ewes  rough- 
ness with  little  or  no  grain.  If  the  roughness  con- 
sists largely  of  alfalfa  or  clover  hay,  no  grain  need 
be  fed.  If  only  prairie  hay,  timothy,  cornstalks,  or 
sorghum  are  available,  it  will  pay  to  feed  a  small  al- 
lowance of  bran,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  a  little 
oil  meal.  Oats  and  bran  make  a  good  ration  fed  with 
such  roughness,  if  the  oats  are  not  too  expensive. 
If  corn  is  fed  at  all  to  breeding  ewes,  it  should  be 
sparingly,  as  too  much  starchy  food  causes  a  deposi- 
tion of  fat  internally,  injuring  the  lamb  more  or 
less  while  in  utero. 

Housing  Facilities. — The  ewes  should  not  be 
closely  confined  in  a  poorly-ventilated  barn.  Their 
covering  of  wool  is  abundant  protection  from  the  cold 
and  they  are  better  off  out  of  doors  except  during 
storms.  Owing  to  their  long  wool  which  does  ngt  dry 
quickly,  they  are  very  likely  to  contract  colds 
(sniffles),  if  exposed  to  cold  rains.  Freedom  to  go 
in  and  out  of  a  shed,  open  on  the  south  side,  in 
which  hay  is  fed,  is  the  best  arrangement.  As  the 
time  for  lambing  approaches,  a  place  closed  on  all 
sides,  with  enough  south  windows  for  ventilation 
and  sunlight,  should  be  provided.  It  is  also  desir- 
able to  have  small  pens  in  one  of  which  a  ewe  may 
be  kept  two  or  three  days  immediately  after  lamb- 
ing. 

Caring  for  Young  Lambs. — If  for  any  reason  a 
lamb  is  unable  to  stand  and  suck,  it  should  be  assisted 
a  few  times  until  it  has  proper  strength.  If  a  ewe  re- 
fuses to  own  a  lamb,  as  occasionally  happens,  she  can 
usually  be  made  to  do  so  by  keeping  her  for  several 
days  in  an  individual  pen  with  only  the  lamb  for  com- 
pany and  out  of  sight  of  the  other  sheep.  It  is  usually 
necessary  to  hold  her  for  the  lamb  to  nurse  several 
times  a  day  for  a  few  days.  In  case  of  the  loss  of 
some  of  the  lambs,  transfers  may  be  made  frori  ewes 


FARMER'S  BREEDING  FLOCK.  205 

having  twins  or  triplets  to  those  having  none,  if  th? 
attendant  is  painstaking  and  persevering.  A  ewe 
will  frequently  own  a  strange  lamb  if  some  of  her 
milk  is  first  sprinkled  over  the  lamb.  What  is  still 
more  effective  is  the  practice  of  removing  the  skin 
of  the  ewe's  lamb  that  has  died,  tying  it  over  the 
back  of  the  lamb  which  is  to  be  adopted.  If  the  cir- 
cumstances are  such  that  no  mother  can  be  pro- 
vided, an  orphan  lamb  may  be  raised  on  the  bottle 
by  supplying  fresh  cow's  milk  and  feeding  it  at 
frequent  intervals  throughout  the  day  for  several 
days.  After  the  first  two  weeks  the  lamb  will  need 
feeding  but  three  times  a  day. 

Feeding  the  Fresh  Ewe. — While  suckling  lambs, 
a  ewe  should  have  food  in  liberal  quantity.  Ewes 
producing  these  early  lambs  have  no  grass  for  some 
time,  and  should  be  given,  where  possible,  something 
succulent,  like  corn  silage  or  such  roots  as  mangels, 
turnips  and  sugar  beets,  to  stimulate  the  flow  of 
milk.  Alfalfa  and  clover  are  both  good  for  milk  pro- 
duction, and  where  these  are  available,  corn  may  be 
made  the  greater  part  or  all  of  the  grain  ration.  It 
should  not  be  fed,  however,  in  a  quantity  greater 
than  one  pound  of  corn  to  two  of  either  clover  or 
alfalfa.  Without  clover  or  alfalfa — that  is,  when  the 
roughness  is  timothy  or  prairie  hay,  cornstalks,  or 
such  other  fodder — it  will  be  necessary  to  make  the 
grain  ration  at  least  one-third  bran  or  one-sixth  oil 
meal  to  furnish  the  necessary  protein.  The  ewes 
should  be  allowed  grass  pasture  as  early  as  possible. 
When  the  grass  becomes  abundant,  no  grain  is 
needed. 

February  and  early  March  lambs  can  be  made  to 
weigh  seventy  to  eighty  pounds  each  by  the  last 
of  August  or  first  of  September.  They  should  not 
be  weaned  until  sold,  as  an  unnecessary  shrinkage 


206        PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

would  follow  if  weaned  and  then  held  for  several 
days. 

Feeding  Young  Lambs  Grain. — A  heavier  and 
fatter  lamb  can  be  made  by  feeding  a  little  grain  dur- 
ing the  summer  in  what  is  called  a  lamb  creep.  Such 
a  creep  is  made  by  driving  stakes  into  the  ground 
just  far  enough  apart  to  admit  the  lambs  but  not  the 
old  sheep.  When  the  lambs  become  large,  there  are 
some  advantages  in  having  cylindrical  stakes  which 
revolve  as  the  lamb  crowds  between.  This  form  is 
generally  used  in  England.  Lambs  can  be  taught 
to  eat  grain  when  only  a  few  weeks  old.  This  may 
consist  of  equal  parts  of  corn,  oats  and  bran  at  first, 
gradually  lessening  the  bran  and  increasing  the  corn 
until  the  ration  finally  becomes  two-thirds  corn  and 
one-third  oats.  Lambs  so  fed  should  reach  a  weight 
of  70  to  80  pounds  in  June,  when  they  are  usually  in 
demand.  However,  since  good  lambs  can  be  fattened 
for  a  later  market  without  grain  if  there  is  sufficient 
grass  for  the  ewes,  the  economy  of  feeding  grain  dur- 
ing the  summer  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  price 
of  feed  and  the  market  outlook.  When  lambs  are 
weaned,  it  is  well  to  remove  the  ewes  to  shorter 
feed  or  to  dry  feed  to  lessen  the  milk  flow  and  thus 
prevent  caked  udders,  which  are  a  permanent  in- 
jury. 

Later  Spring  Lambs. — For  those  who  are  not 
equipped  with  buildings  suitable  for  housing  early 
lambs,  it  will  be  best  to  have  lambs  come  late  in  April 
or  in  May,  when  they  will  require  less  attention. 
The  ewes  then  may  be  kept  all  winter  in  the  open 
shed,  lambing  after  the  warm  spring  weather  be- 
gins. Lambs  which  come  this  late  may  be  left  in 
the  field  during  the  day,  or  all  the  time  if  the 
weather  is  warm,  where  they  bask  in  the  sun  and 
frolic  about  as  soon  as  they  become  strong.  The 
fresh  grass  insures  a  good  flow  of  milk,  which,  of 


FARMER'S  BREEDING  FLOCK.  207 

course,  is  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  young  lambs. 
Late  lambs  are  not  usually  grained  during  the  sum- 
mer, because  they  are  hardly  old  enough  for  a  fall 
market.  They  are  weaned  in  September  and  are 
more  profitably  fed  for  a  late  winter  or  spring 
market. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

FATTENING  LAMBS  IN  THE  FALL. 

Pasture. — Whether  the  farmer  raises  his  own 
feeding  lambs  or  buys  them  from  the  range,  his  profits 
from  fall  feeding  will  be  much  greater  if  he  provides 
an  abundance  of  pasture  of  the  right  kind.  The  ad- 
visability of  supplementing  pasture  with  grain  is  a 
matter  which  depends  upon  the  degree  of  flesh  at  the 
time  the  lambs  are  weaned  or  purchased,  the  current 
price  of  grain  and  the  time  chosen  for  marketing. 
The  pasture  plants  most  suitable  for  lambs  and  most 
to  be  depended  upon  in  the  fall  are  clover,  alfalfa  and 
rape,  each  of  which  will  be  described  in  the  order 
named. 

Clover  for  Fall  Pasture. — In  localities  where 
clover  is  largely  depended  upon  for  the  hay  crop, 
it  is  cut  late  in  June  or  early  in  July.  The  second 
growth,  or  aftermath,  comes  on  at  once  if  there  is  suf- 
ficient rain,  and  by  September  1st  there  will  be  a  heavy 
growth.  The  second  crop  of  clover  is  not  considered 
as  satisfactory  as  the  first  crop  for  hay  making,  be- 
cause it  is  less  tender  and  because  it  is  difficult  to 
cure  properly  at  that  time  of  year,  at  least  in  regions 
of  comparatively  heavy  rainfall.  It  is  better  for  the 
land  if  the  second  crop  is  pastured,  so  long  as  it  is 
not  pastured  too  close,  as  the  manure  is  then  left  on 
the  field,  whereas  if  the  second  crop  is  cut,  nothing 
is  put  back  on  the  land.  Pasturing  close  until  late 
fall  exposes  the  roots  to  the  action  of  the  frosts, 
and  is  detrimental  to  the  following  year's  crop. 
With  a  moderate  number  of  sheep  on  second  growth 
clover,  some  seed  will  mature,  and  this  worked  into 

908 


FATTENING  LAMBS  IN  THE  FALL,  2OQ 

the  soil  by  the  tramping  of  the  sheep  will  add  to 
the  prospects  for  another  crop  the  following  year. 
Second  growth  clover  makes  good  fall  pasture  for 
lambs,  because  it  is  relished  by  them  and  because 
it  is  rich  in  protein.  It  insures  a  good  growth  of 
frame  and  puts  them  in  condition  to  make  heavy 
gains  when  placed  in  the  feed  lot  for  heavy  feeding 
some  time  in  November. 

Grain  with  Clover. — If  lambs  are  to  be  marketed 
in  late  fall,  they  should  be  given  shelled  corn  while  on 
clover.  Clover  really  contains  somewhat  more  pro- 
tein than  is  needed,  and  corn,  being  deficient  in  pro- 
tein but  excessively  starchy,  combines  well  with  the 
legume  to  make  a  balanced  ration.  Lambs  which  have 
just  been  weaned  are  also  less  likely  to  lose  some  of 
their  milk  flesh  if  they  are  given  a  little  corn  with 
good  clover  pasture.  They  will  not  need  more  than 
one-fourth  of  a  pound  of  corn  each  per  day  to  start 
with,  this  to  be  gradually  increased  until  they  are 
consuming  about  one  pound  each  per  day  late  in 
the  fall.  They  will  eat  more  than  this  if  it  is 
thought  best  to  crowd  for  an  earlier  market,  but 
when  clover  is  abundant,  cheaper  gain  can  be  se- 
cured by  feeding  a  little  less  than  a  full  feed  of 
corn.  When  oats  are  worth  no  more  per  pound 
than  corn,  they  may  be  mixed  with  the  latter  to 
good  advantage,  but  oats  are  seldom  so  cheap.  A 
little  bran  serves  as  a  good  regulator  with  corn, 
when  it  can  be  had  at  a  moderate  price. 

Grain  Troughs. — For  feeding  grain  in  the  field, 
suitable  troughs  must  be  provided.  If  the  lambs  are 
being  fed  a  heavy  grain  ration,  it  is  best  to  construct 
a  trough  which  will  require  them  to  eat  rather  slowly. 
To  this  end,  the  wide,  flat-bottomed  trough  is  prefer- 
able to  the  V-shaped.  These  troughs  are  constructed 
by  using  boards  from  12  to  16  feet  long  and  one  foot 
wide  for  the  bottom ;  narrow  boards,  three  or  four 


^^^s^. 

/  OF  THE  \ 

f    UNIVERSITY  } 


2IO   •     PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

inches  wide,  for  the  sides  and  ends ;  with  a  six-inch 
board  above  to  keep  the  lambs  from  standing  in 
the  trough.  This  board  running  lengthwise  may 
be  nailed  to  supports  placed  at  each  end  and  in  the 
middle;  and  it  is  more  effective  if  placed  horizon- 
tally, or  flatwise,  to  the  trough.  There  should  be 
enough  space  between  the  board  above  and  the 
trough  below  to  give  the  lambs  sufficient  head  room 
— about  eight  inches — and  enough  troughs  should 
be  placed  in  the  field  to  permit  all  to  eat  at  the  same 
time.  Each  lamb  requires  from  seven  to  eleven 
inches  of  space  on  one  side  of  the  trough,  depend- 
ing upon  the  size  of  the  lambs.  The  grain  may  be 
kept  in  large  boxes  made  of  matched  lumber  and 
having  water-tight  covers.  If  it  is  thought  best  to 
full  feed  while  upon  clover  pasture,  self-feeders  may 
be  put  into  the  field.  This  practice,  although  not  so 
satisfactory  for  gains  as  feeding  in  the  trough,  less- 
ens the  labor  and  for  that  reason  is  sometimes 
more  economical. 

Lambs  are  not  likely  to  bloat  on  clover,  unless 
they  are  turned  in  when  the  clover  is  wet,  or  when 
they  are  hungry  from  not  having  had  sufficient  feed 
previously. 

Alfalfa  for  Fall  Pasture. — In  those  parts  of  the 
country  where  alfalfa  can  be  grown  with  success, 
very  profitable  returns  may  be  secured  by  pasturing 
lambs  on  the  last  cutting.  Alfalfa  grows  more  rap- 
idly than  clover  and  it  is  cut  when  less  mature.  For 
these  reasons  it  is  possible  to  cut  the  crop  four  times 
during  the  year.  Sometimes  only  the  last,  or  fourth, 
cutting  is  pastured,  and  sometimes  both  third  and 
fourth.  If  lambs  are  bought  early  in  September,  the 
third  cutting  would  .be  used.  Alfalfa  and  clover  be- 
long to  the  same  family  and  are  similar  in  composi- 
tion, with  a  slight  advantage  in  favor  of  alfalfa  for 


FATTENING  LAMBS  IN  THE  FALL.  211 

its  greater  richness  in  protein.  Lambs  are  extremely 
fond  of  alfalfa,  eating  it  with  great  relish.  Like 
clover  it  may  be  pastured  during  the  fall  without 
grain,  and  good  gains  can  be  made;  but  if  an  early 
winter  market  is  sought,  corn  feeding  while  on  alfalfa 
pasture  should  be  practiced.  Under  average  condi- 
tions lambs  can  be  made  to  produce  cheaper  gains  on 
alfalfa  pasture  and  corn  than  on  any  other  feed.  Corn 
should  be  fed  with  moderation  at  first,  say  one-fourth 
of  a  pound  each  day,  gradually  increasing  until  from 


Woodland  Farm  Scene.    Joseph  E.  Wing,  Mechanicsburg,  Ohio. 

three- fourths  to  one  pound  each  is  being  fed.  The 
most  economical  proportion  of  corn  to  feed  with 
either  alfalfa  or  clover  depends  entirely  upon  current 
prices.  If  corn  is  high  it  will  be  cheaper  to  feed  none ; 
if  comparatively  low  in  price  it  will  be  economical  to 
feed  a  fairly  good  ration  of  this  grain.  In  that  part  of 
the  corn  belt  west  of  the  Missouri  River,  snow  does 
not  usually  fall  until  some  time  in  December,  which 
makes  it  possible  to  pasture  alfalfa  until  late,  provid- 


212 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


ing  the  feed  is  abundant.     As  with  clover,  overpas- 
turing  should  be  avoided. 

Bloat. — Sheep  are  more  likely  to  bloat  on  alfalfa 
than  on  clover.  However,  if  they  are  first  turned  into 
the  field  toward  the  middle  of  the  day,  after  they  are 
partly  filled  with  dry  feed,  and  then  left  permanently 
in  the  field,  there  will  be  few,  if  any,  losses.  Lambs 
are  much  less  greedy  than  old  sheep,  and  seldom 


Sheep  in  Alfalfa — Robert  Taylor,  Abbott,  Neb. 

bloat  if  properly  handled.  Moving  a  flock  from  one 
field  to  another  for  water,  or  for  any  purpose,  some- 
times starts  fermentation  of  the  alfalfa  in  the  stom- 
ach, producing  bloat;  therefore  watering  places 
should  be  provided  in  the  field.  With  good  alfalfa 
pasture,  very  cheap  grains  should  be  secured,  and, 
as  with  clover,  if  they  have  not  been  heavily  grain 
fed,  they  are  in  excellent  condition  to  respond  to 
grain  feeding  when  put  into  the  feed  lot  for  winter. 
Rape  for  Fall  Pasture. — Rape  is  a  comparatively 
new  forage  plant  in  the  United  States.  It  has  been 


FATTENING  LAMBS  IN  THE  FALL.  213 

grown  in  England  for  many  years ;  later  it  found  its 
way  into  some  of  the  provinces  of  Canada,  and  from 
there  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  not  longer 
than  fifteen  or  twenty  years  ago.  It  has  been  care-- 
fully tested  at  the  leading  experiment  stations  and  is 
so  strongly  recommended  by  them  to  stockmen  for 
sheep  and  hogs,  especially  the  former,  that  it  is  now 
being  grown  extensively  in  Northern  states  for  fall 
pasture, 

The  variety  in  favor  is  called  Dwarf  Essex.  It  has 
a  large  leaf  surface  with  a  comparatively  small  stem, 
which  makes  it  desirable  as  a  forage  plant,  and  it 
grows  luxuriantly,  furnishing  a  large  tonnage  of  feed 
to  the  acre.  When  the  leaves  are  nibbled  off  they  grow 
out  again,  if  it  is  not  past  the  growing  season.  It 
withstands  frosts  and  is  therefore  a  plant  especially 
well  adapted  for  late  pasturage,  remaining  green  until 
very  late  in  the  season — even  after  snowfall  it  will 
be  uncovered  by  sheep  and  greedily  consumed.  While 
rather  watery,  it  is  nevertheless  very  palatable  and 
nourishing.  It  is  usually  pastured,  though  it  may 
be  cut  and  fed  green  upon  the  ground  or  in  racks,  if 
for  any  reason  it  is  more  convenient  to  do  so ;  but  it 
is  not  a  satisfactory  hay  plant,  as  it  does  not  cure 
properly. 

If  wanted  for  summer  pasture  for  ewes  suckling 
lambs,  it  should  be  sown  in  the  spring  any  time  after 
grass  starts.  It  can  be  pastured  the  whole  season  if  so 
"desired,  though  it  is  customary  to  depend  upon  rape 
for  fall  pasture  after  other  feed  has  become  dry  and 
parched,  or  perhaps  entirely  exhausted.  When  it  is 
sown  in  the  spring  for  pasture  during  the  entire  sea- 
son, the  ground  should  be  plowed,  not  deeply,  thor- 
oughly harrowed  to  pulverize  the  soil,  and,  if  lumpy, 
rolled.  The  seed  may  be  sown  broadcast — the 
method  most  in  favor — at  the  rate  of  four  to  six 
pounds  per  acre,  or  in  rows  from  30  inches  to  three 


214         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

feet  apart  at  the  rate  of  two  to  three  pounds  per 
acre.  The  seed  costs  but  four  to  six  cents  per  pound 
and  it  is  better  to  sow  rather  thickly  than  to  have 
it  thin  on  the  ground.  Within  a  few  weeks  after 
it  has  been  sown,  if  the  weather  is  favorable,  it 
will  cover  the  ground  completely.  It  is  a  rank 
grower  and  ordinarily  is  not  greatly  troubled  with 
weeds  unless  the  ground  is  foul,  when  drilling  in 
rows  is  preferable.  In  regions  of  insufficient  rain- 
fall, too,  the  drill  method  is  considered  better; 
for,  though  this  method  requires  more  labor  in 
cultivating  the  crop,  it  is  possible  to  secure  a 
larger  growth,  if  the  ground  can  be  stirred  and 
therefore  kept  in  a  more  moist  condition.  Having 
such  a  large  leaf  surface,  rape  is  a  plant  requiring 
a  great  deal  of  moisture.  From  six  to  eight  weeks 
after  the  rape  is  sown  it  will  be  large  enough  to 
pasture,  and  if  it  has  been  sown  broadcast,  sheep 
will  ordinarily  begin  at  the  outside  of  the  field  and 
strip  off  the  leaves  clean  as  they  go,  working  gradu- 
ally toward  the  center.  If  drilled,  they  follow  the 
rows.  It  is  well  to  have  two  fields,  one  sown  a  few 
weeks  later  than  the  other,  so  that  the  flock  may  be 
pastured  on  the  one  first  sown  until  the  leaves  are 
stripped  off,  then  turned  to  the  other  where  they 
may  pasture  for  a  period  long  enough  to  permit  the 
leaves  in  the  first  to  grow  out  again — thus  alternat- 
ing between  the  fields  during  the  whole  season  and 
having  an  abundance  of  feed  at  all  times. 

Sowing  Rape  After  Wheat. — Land  which  has  pro- 
duced a  crop  of  wheat  may  be  disked  up  and  sown  to 
rape,  and,  if  the  weather  is  not  too  dry,  a  good  growth 
procured.  Wheat-stubble  ground  sown  to  rape  imme- 
diately after  the  crop  is  harvested  will  be  ready  to 
pasture  in  the  early  part  of  September  and  will  furnish 
feed  until  in  November,  the  time  depending  upon  the 
number  of  sheep  to  the  acre.  While  the  period  for 


FATTENING  LAMBS  IN  THE  FALL.  215 

pasturing-  on  wheat-stubble  rape  is  comparatively 
short,  the  crop  pays  well,  inasmuch  as  the  seed  is  in- 
expensive and  the  cost  of  preparing  the  ground  but 
little. 

Sowing  Rape  in  Oats. — Rape  seed  is  sometimes 
mixed  with  the  customary  amount  of  seed  oats  used 
per  acre  and  sown  at  the  usual  time  for  sowing  oats. 
Since  the  rape  starts  more  slowly,  the  oats  grow  seem- 
ingly unhindered,  the  rape  remaining  dwarfed  un- 
til after  the  oat  crop  is  removed,  when,  if  fall  rains 
are  abundant,  there  may  reasonably  be  expected  a 
satisfactory  growth.  Some  prefer  to  disk  the  oat 
stubble  and  sow  in  the  same  manner  as  was  de- 
scribed for  sowing  wheat  stubble.  While  this  lat- 
ter method  puts  the  crop  of  rape  somewhat  behind 
the  former,  a  more  even  stand  is  secured  and  often 
a  larger  amount  of  feed  grown  to  the  acre. 

The  Feeding  Value  of  Rape. — To  give  the  reader 
an  accurate  idea  of  the  feeding  value  of  rape,  a  few 
Experiment  Station  reports  are  here  given. 

The  first  Station  test  in  America  was  made  in 
Ontario,  Canada,  where  it  was  found  that  one  acre 
of  rape  furnished  sufficient  feed  to  last  twelve  lambs 
two  months.  The  gains  made  were  large  enough  to 
make  the  rape  bring  $16.80  per  acre.  At  another 
time,  one  acre  pastured  27  head  for  a  period  of  25 
days,  beginning  October  I7th,  during  which  time  the 
lambs  gained  1.82  pounds  per  week  each.  At  the 
Michigan  Station,  one  acre  pastured  9  lambs  for  a 
period  of  seven  weeks,  producing  a  gain  of  202.5 
pounds.  On  the  writer's  farm,  343  lambs  were  pas- 
tured from  August  1st  to  October  I5th  on  17  acres 
of  rape  sown  broadcast.  These  lambs  averaged  60 
pounds  each  August  ist,  and  by  October  I5th  100 
were  ready  to  sell  weighing  85  pounds  each.  The 
remainder  were  placed  in  the  winter  feed  lot,  where 
they  made  excellent  gains.  While  on  rape  no  grain 


216  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

was  fed,  but  the  lambs  were  allowed  the  run  of  a 
clover  and  timothy  meadow.  For  the  entire  time  an 
average  gain  of  about  eight  pounds  per  month  was 
made,  which  would  be  considered  a  fair  average  for 
gains  on  rape  without  grain.  At  this  rate  one  acre 
of  rape  produced  during  the  entire  fall  approxi- 
mately 400  pounds  of  mutton,  worth  5  cents  per 
pound.  The  Wisconsin  Station  reported  a  gain  of 
13  pounds  per  month  on  rape  and  a  full  feed  of 
grain,  which  would  be  considered  high.  An  average 
gain  on  rape  and  one  pound  of  grain  each  per  day, 
approximately  a  full  feed,  would  be  10  pounds  per 
month,  according  to  records  made  at  that  Station. 
The  same  Station  reports  the  feeding  value  of  one 
acre  of  rape  from  $14.48  to  $20,  depending  largely 
upon  the  season.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  there  is 
no  expense  for  harvesting  and  that  the  rape  occu- 
pies the  ground  but  a  part  of  the  season,  the  above 
records  show  a  handsome  profit  from  rape  growing. 
Experiment  Station  records  further  show  that  the 
best  gains  are  made  when  a  field  of  grass  is  pro- 
vided, to  be  pastured  along  with  the  rape.  The 
Wisconsin  Station  reports  larger  gains  on  rape  and 
bluegrass  pasture  than  on  rape  and  oats,  and  con- 
siderably larger  than  on  rape  alone.  The  weekly 
gains  were  found  to  be  2.73  pounds  each  on  rape 
alone,  2.8  on  rape  and  oats,  and  3.29  pounds  on  rape 
and  bluegrass  pasture.  The  latter  would  be  consid- 
ered an  exceptionally  large  gain,  more  than  could  be 
relied  upon  for  average  conditions.  The  dry  grass 
is  beneficial,  largely  because  it  has  a  tendency  to 
check  scours,  which  is  usually  rather  prevalent 
among  sheep  pastured  on  rape  alone. 

Grain  With  Rape. — To  prepare  lambs  for  an 
early  market  while  on  rape,  it  would  be  advisable 
to  start  with  a  light  grain  ration,  not  more  than  one- 
fourth  of  a  pound  each  day,  and  increase  this  to  one 


FATTENING  LAMBS  IN  THE  FALL.  217 

pound  at  the  end  of  a  month's  feeding,  this  to  be 
continued  throughout  the  fall.  Under  such  feeding, 
6o-pound  lambs  September  ist  should  weigh  85 
pounds  each  by  November  I5th,  and  at  that  time 
most  of  them  should  be  sufficiently  fat  for  market. 
Equal  parts  of  oats  and  corn  are  excellent  for  this 
purpose,  the  oats  being  somewhat  constipating.  But 
if  there  is  no  particular  reason  for  marketing  in 
early  winter,  lambs  can  be  profitably  pastured  on 
rape  and  grass.  Without  grass,  a  little  prairie  or 
timothy  hay  may  be  fed  in  the  racks  to  check  scours 
occasioned  by  the  succulent  rape»  Lambs  thus  fed 
will  be  in  excellent  condition  to  go  into  the  winter 
feed  lot,  where  they  will  make  rapid  gains  and  be 
ready  for  market  after  about  two  months  of  grain 
feeding. 

Rape  in  Corn. — During  very  recent  years,  rape 
has  been  sown  in  corn,  with  a  grain  drill  the  width 
of  the  corn  row,  at  the  time  of  the  last  cultivation, 
about  five  pounds  of  seed  being  sown  to  the  acre. 
Without  a  drill  one  man  may  walk  just  ahead  of  the 
cultivator,  scattering  the  seed  in  a  single  row,  or  he 
may  ride  a  horse  and  broadcast  three  or  four  rows 
at  a  time.  If  the  corn  is  not  heavy,  and  sufficient 
rain  falls,  a  good  growth  may  be  secured.  Even  with 
conditions  unfavorable,  there  will  usually  be  enough 
of  a  growth  to  at  least  pay  for  the  seed  and  labor. 

In  the  West,  where  it  is  customary  to  leave  the 
stalks  of  corn  standing,  both  rape  and  corn  are  con- 
sumed together,  the  sheep  being  turned  into  the 
field  just  as  soon  as  the  corn  is  ripe.  They  eat  the 
rape  and  lower  leaves  of  the  stalks  first,  which 
leaves  not  only  contain  considerable  nourishment 
but  also  have  a  tendency  to  check  scours  caused  by 
the  succulent  rape.  Later  they  eat  the  husks  and 
lower  ears,  shelling  the  corn  from  the  cob.  Little  is 
wasted,  because  whatever  drops  upon  the  ground 


2l8  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

is  eaten  before  more  is  shelled.  Older  sheep  that 
have  been  fed  in  this  manner  before,  start  shelling 
the  corn  earlier  in  the  season  than  do  lambs,  for 
which  reason  it  is  a  good  practice  to  have  a  few  old 
sheep  in  with  the  lambs  to  get  them  started  as  early 
as  possible.  Sheep,  run  in  corn  in  this  way,  will  har- 
vest the  entire  crop,  leaving  only  the  stem  of  the 
stalk  and  the  cobs  attached.  Toward  the  last  it  is 
well  to  run  a  float  over  the  ground  to  break  down 
those  stalks  which  have  ears  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
sheep.  Corn  and  rape  make  a  good  combination. 
An  average  crop  of  corn,  with  the  rape,  should  fur- 
nish enough  feed  to  last  through  the  months  of 
October  and  November,  with  40  lambs  feeding  to 
the  acre.  Under  favorable  conditions  a  growth  of 
20  pounds  per  lamb,  or  800  pounds  on  the  40  head,' 
would  not  be  considered  unreasonable.  This  would 
give  a  large  revenue  per  acre  with  lambs  worth,  as 
they  usually  are,  from  four  to  six  cents  per  pound. 
In  feeding  corn  and  rape  in  this  way  the  field  must 
be  carefully  watched  toward  the  last  to  see  that 
there  is  always  sufficient  feed.  It  is  better  to  re- 
move fattening  lambs  before  the  feed  is  exhausted, 
and  replace  them  with  stock  sheep  or  breeding  ewes 
to  finish  the  crop,  so  that  there  will  be  no  danger 
of  a  setback  because  of  a  scarcity  of  feed  at  the 
very  last.  Ordinarily  a  large  portion  of  the  lambs 
fed  in  this  way  are  sufficiently  fat  to  go  on  the  mar- 
ket at  the  close  of  the  periodo  Those  which  are  not 
should  be  culled  out  and  put  in  the  feed  lot  to  be 
finished. 

Bloating  From  Rape. — If  a  flock  of  breeding  ewes, 
or  other  sheep  accustomed  to  rape,  should  be  turned 
into  a  field  of  such  forage  without  having  previously 
been  fairly  well  filled  on  other  feed,  several  would 
probably  die  from  bloat.  Sheep  are  very  fond  of 
rape,  and  if  hungry  when  first  turned  in  are  in- 


FATTENING  LAMBS  IN  THE  FALL.  219 

clined  to  eat  too  much.  Losses  from  bloat  are 
not  likely  to  take  place,  however,  if  sheep  are  filled 
beforehand  with  grass  or  hay.  Lambs  are  often  dis- 
inclined to  eat  rape  when  first  turned  into  the  field. 
It  is  entirely  new  to  them  and  they  are  likely  to 
consume  but  little  until  the  second  day.  Even 
should  they  begin  to  eat  at  once,  as  they  are  less 
greedy  than  old  sheep  they  are  not  likely  to  bloat. 

Grazing  Lambs  on  Oats  and  Peas. — In  the  San 
Luis  Valley  of  Southern  Colorado  there  has  sud- 
denly sprung  up  what  is  known  as  the  pea-fed  lamb 
industry.  Sheep  "barons"  buy  lambs,  mostly  Mexi- 
cans, by  the  thousands  and  fatten  them  in  immense 
fields  of  unharvested,  though  cured,  cats  and  peas. 
It  is  claimed  that  one  acre  of  ground  will  produce 
on  an  average  $15.00  worth  of  lamb  mutton  at  no 
expense  whatever  for  harvesting  the  crop. 

Oats  and  peas  are  mixed  together  and  drilled  in 
rows  from  12  to  16  inches  apart  at  the  rate  of  30  to 
40  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre,  this  amount  of  seed 
costing  not  more  than  $1.00.  As  most  of  the  land  is 
seeded  without  being  plowed,  it  is  apparent  that  the 
cost  of  producing  the  crop  is  trivial.  The  crop, 
being  planted  in  early  spring,  is  ready  to  feed  in  the 
field  as  soon  as  the  seeds  ripen.  It  is  customary  to 
begin  Jeeding  the  oats  and  peas  some  time  in  No- 
vember, running  the  lambs  there  until  ready  for 
market  h*  January.  They  are  turned  in  but  a  short 
time  the  first  day,  gradually  becoming  accustomed 
to  the  grain  by  an  increased  allotment  of  time  on 
the  feed.  A  gain  of  6  to  8  pounds  per  month  is  con- 
sidered fair. 

While  this  system  of  lamb  feeding  is  practiced  in 
an  irrigated  country  where  the  matured  crop  stands 
for  several  months  uninjured  because  of  little  or  no 
rainfall,  it  will  no  doubt  be  tried  successfully  on 
farms  in  humid  climates,  using  20  or  more  lambs  to 
the  acre  instead  of  10,  and  marketing  in  late  fall. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 
FATTENING  LAMBS  IN  EARLY  WINTER. 

The  difficulties  connected  with  sheep  raising  in 
parts  of  the  West  do  not  apply  to  sheep  feeding  in 
the  winter.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  build  fences  for 
confining  sheep  for  winter  feeding,  since  it  requires 
so  small  an  enclosure.  A  fence  may  be  made  board- 
tight,  or  at  least  tight  enough  and  high  enough  to 
keep  out  dogs  and  coyotes,  with  but  very  little  ex- 
pense. 

The  ideal  shelter  for  fattening  lambs  is  a  shed 
open  only  on  the  south  side,  with  a  feed  yard  ad- 
joining on  the  same  side.  The  open  side  should  be 
provided  with  gates  for  confining  the  lambs  within 
whenever  desired.  If  in  a  region  where  drifting 
snowstorms  are  common,  it  is  well  to  provide  doors 
along  the  upper  half  of  this  open  space,  which  may 
be  let  down.  The  shed  should  have  a  water-tight 
roof  made  of  shingles,  boards,  or  sheet  iron  if  the 
latter  is  less  expensive.  While  a  board  roof  is  not 
so  tight  as  a  shingle  roof,  it  answers  the  purpose 
fairly  well.  The  boards  should  run  up  and  down 
with  narrow  strips  nailed  on  for  battening. 

Feeding  in  basement  barns  is  unsatisfactory,  be- 
cause such  barns  are  too  warm.  Sheep  are  well  pro- 
tected from  cold  weather  by  a  heavy  fleece  of  wool, 
and  for  that  reason  they  should  not  be  confined  in 
buildings  enclosed  on  all  sides.  If  they  are  too 
warmly  housed  they  suffer  from  the  heat  while  in- 
side, and  when  allowed  to  go  into  the  open  air  are 
very  likely  to  contract  "sniffles,"  in  which  condition 
good  gains  are  out  of  the  question.  In  dry  climates, 

320 


FATTENING  LAMBS  IN  EARLY  WINTER. 

where  there  is  .little  rain  and  snowfall,  lambs  may 
be  fed  with  good  success  in  the  open,  provided  the 
yards  are  protected  from  cold  winds.  It  is  needless 
to  say  that  if  lambs  have  been  clipped,  they  will 
necessarily  require  warmer  quarters.  Including 
room  for  hay  racks,  each  lamb  should  be  allowed 
about  five  square  feet  of  space.  A  shed  20  feet  wide 
and  75  feet  long  would  therefore  be  large  enough  for 
a  car-load  of  300  head.  Less  space  is  often  given, 
but  sheep  do  not  do  well  when  crowded.  Western 


Sheep  Feeding  Yards.     Peter  Jansen,  Jansen,  Nebraska. 

feeders  who  provide  shelter  for  sheep  only  during 
storms  figure  on  three  square  feet  of  space  for  each 
lamb. 

Suitable  hayracks  should  be  placed  within  to  ac- 
commodate the  entire  number  at  one  time,  as  it  is 
especially  important  to  keep  sheep  dry.  Each  lamb 
will  require  from  8  to  12  inches  of  rack  space,  and 
all  the  racks  should  be  placed  in  such  a  way  as  to 
make  the  feeding  convenient.  If  the  shed  is  built 


222         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDINC* 

high  enough  to  store  hay  above  the  sheep,  it  is  better 
to  make  the  flooring  of  matched  lumber  to  prevent 
the  breath  of  the  sheep  from  coming  in  contact  with 
the  hay  above.  Chutes  may  be  constructed  for 
throwing  the  hay  down  to  the  racks.  If  the  shed  is 
made  sufficiently  wide  to  store  hay  along  the  north 
half,  it  will  be  handier  to  feed  and  much  less  ex- 
pensive than  with  a  floor  above.  In  that  case  a  rack 
may  be  placed  along  the  north  side,  close  up  to  the 
hay,  running  the  full  length  of  the  shed.  This  will 


Range  Yearlings.     Peter  Jansen,  Jansen,  Nebraska. 

not  give  room  for  the  entire  number,  therefore  other 
short  racks  should  be  placed  at  right  angles  at  cer- 
tain intervals.  These  racks  extending  crosswise 
should  not  run  the  full  width  of  the  shed,  unless  it  is 
desired  to  separate  the  sheep  into  small  lots.  The 
racks  projecting  at  right  angles  should  be  made  to 
accommodate  sheep  on  both  sides.  With  the  hay 
stored  under  the  north  side  of  the  shed,  as  de- 
scribed, it  is  possible  to  keep  moving  the  racks 


FATTENING  LAMBS  IN  EARLY  WINTER.        22$ 

northward  as  the  hay  is  fed  out,  thus  giving  the 
lambs  more  room  as  they  grow  larger.  If  the  hay 
is  in  stacks  on  the  north  side  of  the  shed,  it  will 
also  be  convenient  to  have  the  racks  placed  in  the 
position  described.  Doors  hinged  at  the  bottom  may 
be  placed  on  the  north  side  so  that  hay  can  be 
forked  direct -from  the  stack  through  the  opening 
into  racks.  This  arrangement  is  no  less  satisfac- 
tory if  hay  is  drawn  from  a  distance,  in  which  case 
a  team  may  be  driven  along  the  north  side  of  the 
shed  and  the  hay  thrown  into  the  rack,  to  be  forked 
into  the  cross  racks  later. 

Straw  should  be  used  freely  to  insure  a  dry  bed 
at  all  times,  as  foulness  underneath  not  only  is  very 
detrimental  to  gains,  but  may  bring  on  a  disease 
called  foot-rot.  Many  successful  feeders  permit  the 
manure  to  accumulate  under  the  shed  during  the 
winter,  but  always  keep  it  well  covered  with 
straw. 

Water. — At  convenient  places  in  the  shed,  water- 
ing troughs  with  floats  should  be  placed.  If  there 
is  no  windmill  and  supply  tank  on  the  premises 
and  there  are  but  a  few  sheep,  water  may  be  car- 
ried in  buckets  from  a  pump,  or,  better  still,  if  the 
pump  is  close  by,  it  may  be  conducted  through 
wooden  troughs  made  for  the  purpose.  While 
sheep  drink  less  water  than  do  other  farm  animals, 
what  is  given  them  should  be  fresh  and  pure,  and 
should  be  kept  before  them  at  all  times,  as  they 
will  not,  under  any  consideration,  make  satisfactory 
gains  without  all  the  fresh  water  they  wish  to 
drink. 

Salt  should  be  kept  in  separate  troughs  under  the 
shed  or  in  boxes  nailed  to  the  corners.  If  these 
boxes  or  troughs  are  permitted  to  become  empty 
and  remain  so  several  days,  when  a  fresh  supply  is 
put  in  the  sheep  will  eat  more  than  is  good  for 


224          PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

them.  An  overfeed  of  salt  makes  any  animal  drink 
too  much  water  for  good  gains.  There  should  be 
salt  in  these  boxes  at  all  times,  or  it  may  be  scat- 
tered at  certain  intervals  in  the  empty  grain  troughs, 
care  being  taken  that  none  is  left  to  become  mixed 
with  the  grain,  as  too  much  would  then  be  con- 
sumed. 

The  feed  lot  should  extend  the  full  length  of  the 
shed  on  the  south  side  and  should  be  three  or  four 
times  the  area  of  the  shed  to  give  plenty  of  room 
for  the  lambs  to  move  about  the  grain  troughs 
while  eating.  The  feed  lot  should  be  well  drained 
and  kept  as  dry  as  possible.  With  gates  along  the 
south  side  of  the  shed,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  con- 
fine the  lambs  within  while  grain  is  being  dis- 
tributed in  the  troughs  outside ;  and  while  the  lambs 
are  eating  grain,  hay  may  be  placed  in  the  racks 
under  cover.  The  grain  troughs  should  be  made  as 
described  in  the  previous  chapter.  They  should 
stand  about  one  foot  from  the  ground  on  strong 
legs  spreading  outward  at  the  bottom,  so  there 
will  be  no  danger  of  their  being  pushed  over,  as 
sheep  have  been  killed  by  grain  troughs  tipping 
over  upon  them.  The  grain  may  be  stored  in  tight 
boxes  with  trap  covers  in  the  sloping  roof,  each  box 
being  large  enough  to  hold  a  wagon  load.  It  should 
be  set  in  some  convenient  place  in  the  yard  and  the 
grain  distributed  by  the  use  of  wooden  buckets  or, 
better  still,  coal-scuttles,  the  amount  being  care- 
fully regulated  at  each  feed  and  scattered  evenly 
from  end  to  end  of  the  troughs. 

The  Self-feeder. — In  order  to  save  the  labor  of 
feeding  twice  a  day  in  the  troughs,  it  is  some- 
times customary  to  provide  what  are  called  self- 
feeders,  which  are  nothing  more  than  boxes,  large 
enough  to  hold  half  a  wagon  load  or  more  of  grain, 
placed  on  short  legs  and  having  openings  on  each 


FATTENING  LAMBS  IN  EARLY  WINTER.         22$ 

side  below  to  permit  the  grain  to  work  down  into 
troughs  constructed  along  the  edge  on  both  sides. 
It  is  arranged  so  that  as  fast  as  the  grain  is  re- 
moved by  the  sheep  from  the  trough  more  will 
work  down  from  above.  While  the  self-feeder  is  a 
labor-saving  device,  it  is  doubtful  if  it  is  an 
economical  method  of  feeding.  Two  experiment 
stations  have  made  tests  comparing  gains  made 
by  the  use  of  the  self-feeder  and  those  made  by 
troughs  where  grain  is  supplied  in  the  usual  way. 
In  both  instances  larger  and  more  economical  gains 
were  made  by  regular  and  systematic  feeding  in 
troughs.  The  objection  to  the  self-feeder  lies  in 
the  fact  that  it  is  impossible  to  keep  the  sheep  from 
mussing  the  grain.  Sheep  are  naturally  delicate  in 
their  habits  of  eating,  and  they  will  not  eat  with 
the  same  relish  grain  which  has  been  mussed  over 
by  others.  In  sections  of  the  country  where  grain 
is  cheap  and  labor  high,  it  is  quite  possible  that  a 
self-feeder  well  made  will  give  satisfaction.  It 
should  be  so  arranged  that  the  grain  will  work 
down  slowly,  and  yet  furnish  feed  at  all  times.  It  is 
needless  to  say  that  lambs  which  are  to  go  on  the 
self-feeder  must  first  be  fed  in  the  trough  and  grad- 
ually led  up  to  a  full  feed.  Even  then  they  are 
likely  to  overeat  on  corn  unless  oats,  bran  or  wheat 
screenings  form  a  large  part  of  the  ration. 

Winter  Rations. — Assuming  first  that  the 
lambs  have  been  fed  grain  on  fall  pasture  and 
that  it  is  desired  to  finish  them  for  market  as  soon 
as  possible,  it  would  be  well  to  supply,  the  first  day 
in  the  feed  lot,  as  much  grain  as  they  have  been 
receiving  on  pasture,  increasing  the  amount  to  a 
full  feed,  which  would  be  approximately  iy2 
pounds  per  head.  The  character  of  the  grain  ration 
will  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  roughness, 
and  the  latter  will  in  all  probability  be  that  which 


226         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

is  most  available  on  the  farm.  Much  of  the  rough- 
ness grown  on  the  average  farm  is  a  by-product, 
as  it  were,  from  the  growing  of  grain.  This  should 
be  utilized  to  the  best  advantage,  which  makes  it 
desirable  to  adapt  the  grain  ration  to  this  rough- 
ness. Should  it  consist  of  cornstalks  (stover)  and 
oat  straw,  both  of  them  deficient  in  protein,  the 
grain  ration  must  be  correspondingly  rich  in  this 
nutrient.  Corn  alone  would  be  unsatisfactory  with 
such  roughness,  because  it  is  also  deficient  in  pro- 
tein. But  corn,  wherever  it  can  be  grown  success- 
fully, is  the  cheapest  grain,  at  least  for  a  foodstuff 
so  efficient  as  a  fat  producer  and  at  the  same  time 
so  wonderfully  relished  by  sheep  as  well  as  by  cat- 
tle. It  is  therefore  advisable  to  feed  as  large  a  pro- 
portion of  this  grain  as  possible,  so  long  as  suffi- 
cient protein  can  be  supplied  from  other  sources. 
As  previously  mentioned,  our  most  concentrated 
protein  foods  for  sheep  feeding  are  ground  oil  cake 
(linseed  meal),  cottonseed  meal,  and  gluten  meal. 
Any  one  of  these  foods  may  be  mixed  with  shelled 
corn  and  but  little  will  be  required  to  supply  the 
protein  necessary.  For  most  profitable  feeding,  the 
proportion  of  protein  food  will  depend  upon  the 
market  price  of  such  foods  as  well  as  of  corn. 
Should  corn  be  cheap  and  these  commercial  foods 
comparatively  high  in  price,  it  would  be  better 
economy  to  use  a  larger  proportion  of  corn  than 
would  be  used  if  the  reverse  were  true.  Speaking 
in  approximate  terms,  high-priced  corn  should  be 
mixed  with  low-priced  ground  oil  cake,  cottonseed 
meal,  or  gluten  meal,  in  the  proportion  of  four 
parts  of  corn  by  weight  to  one  of  the  protein  con- 
centrate. Low-priced  corn  should  be  mixed  with 
the  high-priced  protein  concentrate  in  the  propor- 
tion of  nine  pounds  of  corn  to  one  of  ground  oil 
cake,  or  other  protein  concentrate.  In  the  former 


FATTENING  LAMBS  IN  EARLY  WINTER.  327 

case,  we  are  therefore  making  corn  eighty  per  cent 
of  the  grain  ration;  in  the  latter,  ninety  per  cent. 
With  average  prices  for  both,  something  like 
thirty-five  cents  per  bushel  for  corn  and  twenty- 
five  dollars  per  ton  for  oil  cake  and  the  other  pro- 
tein foods,  it  would  be  well  to  mix  eighty-five 
pounds  of  corn  with  fifteen  pounds  of  the  protein 
food.  From  these  commercial  protein  foods  the 
feeder  will  be  justified  in  selecting  that  which  can 
be  purchased  at  the  lowest  price  per  pound.  In 
one  hundred  pounds  of  each  of  these  foodstuffs,  we 
have  in  cottonseed  meal,  as  shown  by  the  table  in 
the  appendix,  thirty-two  pounds  of  digestible  pro- 
tein ;  in  new  process  oil  cake,  twenty-eight  pounds ; 
and  in  gluten  meal,  twenty-four  pounds.  Although 
the  cottonseed  meal  is  richer  in  protein,  it  is  some- 
what less  palatable  to  lambs  than  oil  cake  and 
more  often  inferior  in  quality,  and  because  of  this 
inferiority  may  bring  on  sickness.  Gluten  meal, 
while  containing  a  little  less  protein  than  oil  cake, 
is  enough  richer  in  fat  to  even  it  in  value  per  ton. 

If  wheat  bran  could  be  purchased  at  a  price  not 
more  than  one-half  that  of  oil  cake,  it  could  be 
profitably  used.  Twice  as  much  bran  as  oil  cake 
should  be  used,  because  it  contains  but  half  the  per 
cent  of  protein.  Canadian  peas  or  cowpeas  are 
even  better  than  bran,  as  they  furnish  from  30  per 
cent  to  50  per  cent  more  protein  and  less  crude 
fiber,  which  latter  is  largely  inert  matter.  Soy 
beans  are  relished  and  are  quite  as  efficient  as  oil 
cake  in  supplying  protein. 

Protein  Roughage. — With  clover  hay  success- 
fully grown  in  the  East  and  Middle  West,  cowpea 
hay  in  the  South,  and  alfalfa  in  the  West,  it  is 
usually  possible  to  produce  protein  on  the  farm 
cheaper  than  it  can  be  purchased  on  the  market  in 
the  so-called  commercial  protein  foods.  Were  one- 


228  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING.    ' 

half  the  roughness  to  consist  of  any  of  these  for- 
age plants,  it  would  be  necessary  to  purchase  not 
more  than  half  the  amount  of  the  commercial  pro- 
tein foods  previously  recommended.  Supposing 
such  protein  roughness  available,  it  will  be  well  to 
leave  out  either  the  oat  straw  or  cornstalks,  or 
one-half  of  each.  Of  the  two,  the  latter  is  much 
more  valuable  for  sheep,  especially  when  well  cured 
in  the  shock;  if  shredded,  more  will  be  consumed, 
and  the  refuse  may  be  used  for  bedding.  Should 
the  roughness  consist  entirely  of  one  or  more  of  the 
legumes,  corn  alone  may  be  fed. 

Timothy,  prairie  hay  and  sorghum  hay  are  similar 
in  feeding  value  to  corn  stover,  and  when  any  of 
these  is  used  as  roughness  for  sheep,  the  commer- 
cial protein  food  should  be  mixed  with  corn,  as 
has  been  recommended  when  the  roughness  con- 
sists of  corn  stover  or  oat  straw.  None  of  these 
forage  plants  can  take  the  place  of  clover,  alfalfa 
or  cowpea  hay. 

Millet  hay  is  similar  in  feeding  value  to  sorghum, 
etc.,  for  sheep.  It  is  likely,  however,  to  induce 
scours  unless  cut  at  the  right  time,  and  is  not  for 
that  reason  considered  a  first  class  roughness  for 
sheep. 

Corn  Silage. — On  farms  where  this  may  be  had, 
it  is  fed  to  lambs  in  limited  quantity  with  satis- 
factory results.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  this  food 
contains  about  80  per  cent  of  water — four  times  as 
much  as  clover  hay — it  is  necessary  to  supply  cor- 
respondingly more  for  a  day's  allowance.  Each 
lamb  should  have  about  two  pounds  of  corn  silage 
and  one-half  a  pound  of  dry  hay  per  day  for  rough- 
ness. Because  of  its  succulence,  silage  keeps  the 
intestinal  tract  in  a  healthy  condition  and  is  espe- 
cially desirable  for  sheep  during  the  early  part  of 
the  fattening  period.  Being  very  filling,  it  makes 


FATTENING  LAMBS  IN  EARLY  WINTER. 

less  room  for  grain  at  the  time,  but  increases  the 
digestive  capacity  of  the  animal  for  the  consump- 
tion of  more  feed  later.  The  presence  of  corn  in 
silage  allows  a  decrease  in  the  proportion  of  shelled 
corn  fed. 

Roots,  including  turnips,  rutabagas,  mangel- 
wurzels  and  sugar-beets,  are  extensively  grown  in 
England  and  Canada  for  sheep  feeding.  When 
sliced  and  mixed  with  grain,  they  are  very  much 
relished  and,  like  silage,  will  keep  the  sheep  in  a 
thrifty  condition.  Roots  contain  from  85  to  90  per 
cent  water,  and  to  furnish  the  same  amount  of  dry 
matter  that  would  be  found  in  silage  it  is  necessary 
to  feed  a  somewhat  larger  quantity.  They  contain 
more  protein  than  does  silage,  however,  which 
makes  it  unnecessary  to  feed  as  much  protein  foods 
in  the  grain  ration.  Nevertheless,  as  with  fatten- 
ing cattle,  roots  are  not  economical  to  feed  market 
sheep  in  the  West,  where  farms  are  large  and  help 
is  high  priced.  The  growing  of  roots  requires  the 
expenditure  of  a  great  deal  of  labor,  and,  although 
they  yield  well,  the  cost  of  production  makes 
silage  preferable  where  corn  is  extensively  grown. 

Sugar-beet  pulp  is  an  available  foodstuff  in  the 
vicinity  of  beet  sugar  factories.  In  the  West  it 
may  be  purchased  at  a  price  varying  from  25  cents 
to  $i  per  ton.  In  view  of  its  excessive  bulk  for 
shipment  and  its  low  price  at  the  factory,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  feed  pulp  only  at  points  near  where  it  is 
made.  At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  lambs  were 
fed  pulp  and  alfalfa  in  comparison  with  grain  and 
alfalfa.  With  grain  at  60  cents  per  hundred  and 
alfalfa  $4  per  ton,  pulp  proved  to  be  worth  $1.86 
per  ton.  When  10.14  pounds  of  pulp  were  fed  with 
4.23  pounds  of  alfalfa  and  1.56  pounds  of  grain,  the 
pulp  proved  to  be  worth  $3.38  per  ton.  This  would 
indicate  that  pulp  is  most  valuable  when  fed  in  con- 


23O         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

nection  with  grain.  In  this  experiment  the  high 
returns  for  pulp  are  due  in  part  to  the  profits  on  the 
lambs.  A  conservative  estimate  places  the  valua- 
tion of  one  ton  of  pulp  equivalent  to  that  of  200 
pounds  of  corn.  This  seems  reasonable  because  one 
ton  of  pulp  contains  only  200  pounds  of  dry  mat- 
ter. In  comparison  with  sugar-beets,  the  Colorado 
Experiment  Station  concludes  that  when  pulp  and 
beets  are  each  fed  with  alfalfa  hay,  the  pulp  is 
worth  $1.46  per  ton  if  the  beets  are  valued  at  $4  per 
ton.  With  grain  fed  in  addition,  the  beets  gave  a 
slightly  higher  comparative  valuation.  The  Colo- 
rado^  Station  advises  the  use  of  pulp  if  it  can  be 
delivered  at  the  yards  for  $1.50  per  ton. 

Pulp  has  a  laxative  effect  upon  the  animal,  for 
which  reason  results  are  better  when  it  is  fed  in 
connection  with  hay  or  straw.  Lambs  should  not 
be  given  more  than  one  pound  per  day  at  first, 
which  amount  may  be  gradually  increased  to  eight 
or  ten  pounds.  With  ten  pounds  of  pulp  per  day, 
however,  large  gains  are  out  of  the  question  be- 
cause of  the  excess  of  water,  which  makes  it  ex- 
tremely bulky.  If  a  large  quantity  is  to  be  fed  at 
any  time,  it  should  be  given  early  in  the  feeding 
period.  When  fed  in  fairly  liberal  amounts,  it  is 
conducive  to  a  good  growth  of  frame  and  at  the 
same  time  puts  the  animal  in  good  thrift  for  heavier 
grain  feeding  in  the  future;,  and  this  later  grain 
feeding  hardens  up  the  flesh,  which  has  a  tendency 
to  be  soft  when  made  on  pulp. 

Dried  beet  pulp  and  dried  molasses-beet  pulp  are 
now  being  sold  on  the  market  for  feeding  purposes. 
Both  have  recently  been  tested  by  the  Michigan 
Station,  where  it  was  found  that  "they  are  pos- 
sessed of  feeding  values  comparing  very  favorably 
with  corn."  The  results  are  not  surprising  inas- 
much as  such  pulp  contains  about  the  same  per- 


FATTENING  LAMBS  IN  EARLY  WINTER.         23! 

centage  of  dry  matter  as  corn  and  is  also  similar  in 
the  quantity  of  other  nutrients  contained.  It  would 
seem,  however,  that  pulp  would  be  somewhat  in- 
ferior to  corn,  in  that  it  contains  more  crude  fiber. 
In  the  test,  one  ration  consisted  of  corn  four 
pounds,  bran  two  pounds,  linseed  meal  one  pound, 
and  clover  hay,  while  the  other  contained  the  same 
foods  with  four  pounds  of  dried  pulp  substituted 
for  four  pounds  of  corn.  The  largest  and  cheapest 
gains  were  made  by  feeding  both  corn  and  dried 
pulp  in  the  proportion,  corn  four  pounds,  bran  two 
pounds,  linseed  meal  one  pound,  beet  pulp  seven 
pounds,  and  clover  hay. 

Wheat  and  rye  straw  could  be  used  for  sheep  if 
no  other  roughness  were  at  hand.  Such  material, 
however,  contains  but  little  nutriment,  and  sheep, 
like  cattle,  will  eat  only  enough  to  satisfy  the  crav- 
ing for  bulk.  With  such  roughness,  considerably 
more  grain  will  be  consumed  for  a  given  increase 
in  weight.  With  straw  the  grain  ration  should  con- 
sist of  not  less  than  20  per  cent  oil  meal,  or  its 
equivalent  in  the  shape  of  some  other  protein  food, 
supposing  the  remainder  of  the  grain  ration  is  corn. 
Neither  wheat  nor  rye  straw  is  equal  in  feeding 
value  to  oat  straw. 

With  any  of  the  forms  of  roughness  mentioned 
and  with  a  liberal  allowance  of  suitable  grain  to 
go  with  whatever  roughness  is  fed,  lambs  which 
have  previously  been  fed  grain  on  fall  pasture 
should  be  ready  for  market  after  from  four  to  eight 
weeks  of  feeding  in  the  lot. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

FATTENING  RANGE  LAMBS  OR  NATIVES 

WHICH  HAVE  NOT  HAD  GRAIN 

ON  PASTURE. 

There  are  years  when  grass  or  other  forage  is 
abundant  and  grain  is  comparatively  high  in  price. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  farmer  would  be 
justified  in  making  all  the  mutton  possible  from 
grass,  rather  than  to  allow  any  surplus  to  waste  be- 
cause of  grain  feeding.  Obviously,  smaller  gains 
would  be  secured  under  such  a  system,  and  the 
lambs  would  close  the  pasture  season  in  only  fair 
flesh. 

Quantity  of  Feed. — With  native  grass  lambs  or 
with  lambs  fresh  from  the  range  country,  it  would 
not  be  advisable  to  begin  heavy  grain  feeding  when 
first  placed  in  the  dry  lot,  as  an  abrupt  change  is 
not  conducive  to  the  best  health  nor  to  the  best 
future  gains  with  any  class  of  animals.  Cured  hay 
of  good  quality  can  hardly  take  the  place  of  pasture, 
because  it  is  not  so  well  relished  and  therefore  less 
is  consumed.  Then,  too,  as  the  season  advances  and 
the  temperature  gradually  grows  lower,  there  is 
needed  something  more  concentrated  to  keep  up 
animal  heat  and  otherwise  maintain  the  body.  A 
change,  therefore,  from  pasture  to  hay  would  be 
more  abrupt  than  from  pasture  to  hay  and  a  little 
grain.  It  would  not  be  excessive  to  start  lambs  on 
one-fourth  of  a  pound  of  grain  each  per  day,  nor 
would  it  be  crowding  too  hard  to  increase  this 
amount  one-fourth  of  a  pound  each  succeeding 
332 


FATTENING  RANGE  LAMBS. 


233 


Range  Scenes  Near  Forbes,  Wyoming. 


234  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

week.     At  this  rate  they  will  be  consuming  one 
pound  each  during  the  fourth  week.     This  is  tak- 
ing it  for  granted  that  it  is  desired  to   get  such 
lambs  ready  for  market  as  soon  as  possible.    After 
one  pound  per  day  has  been  reached  the  further 
increase    should    be    more    gradual.      A    feed    of 
one  and  one-half  pounds  of  grain  per  day  at  the 
end  of  seven  weeks  would  be  sufficient  to  insure 
large   gains   and    a    comparatively    short     feeding 
period.    If  hay  or  other  roughness  is  comparatively 
cheap,  and  it  seems  expedient  to  make  more  mut- 
ton from  such  feed  and  less  from  grain,  the  fatten- 
ing may  go  forth  more  slowly,  postponing  the  time 
of  marketing  accordingly.     The  grain  ration  could 
then  start  with  one-eighth  pound  each  per  day,  in- 
creasing this  one-eighth  of  a  pound  per  week,  in- 
stead of  one-fourth,  until  at  the  end  of  seven  weeks 
each   lamb   is   receiving  one   pound   per  day.     The 
grain  ration  could  be  limited  to  this  amount,  which 
limitation   would   insure   a   larger   consumption    of 
roughness   and  correspondingly   less   grain.      With 
such  a  system  the  lambs  would  be  marketed  some 
time  during  the  months  of  March  or  April,  when, 
as  the  market  reports  will  show,  prices  are  usually 
good. 

Character  of  the  Ration. — Although  this  system 
of  lamb  feeding  requires  a  longer  period,  it  is  never- 
theless profitable  when  grain  is  high  priced,  because 
more  mutton  may  be  made  from  inexpensive  mate- 
rial. With  such  a  system  it  is  possible  to  make  a 
liberal  use  of  cornstalks — a  fodder  which  is  often 
wasted  because  of  the  prevalent  notion  that  such 
material  is  too  bulky  and  contains  too  little  nourish- 
ment to  make  it  worth  saving  for  sheep.  Since  corn 
stover  is  a  by-product  from  the  growing  of  an  ex- 
tensive acreage  of  corn  and  yields  abundantly  per 
acre,  the  supply  is  large  and  it  is  accordingly  a 


FATTENING  RANGE  LAMBS.  235 

cheap  fodder.  There  is  present,  however,  in  well- 
cured  corn  stover  a  considerable  amount  of  nutri- 
tive material,  useful  for  sheep  as  well  as  cattle, 
though  less  completely  consumed  by  the  former; 
but  this  can  be  properly  conserved  and  utilized  only 
when  the  stalks  are  cut  just  as  soon  as  the  ears 
are  ripe,  and  cured  in  the  shock — or  put  in  the  silo 
a  few  days  earlier. 

Shock  Corn. — With  the  system  of  light  grain- 
feeding  described,  it  is  possible  to  feed  in  the  stalk 
all  the  grain  that  is  fed,  at  least  for  a  period  of  sev- 
eral weeks.  Corn  in  the  stalk  is  cheaper  than 
shelled  corn,  because  the  cost  of  both  husking  and 
shelling  is  saved.  In  feeding  corn  fodder  to  lambs, 
the  entire  stalk  with  ear  attached  is  placed  in  a 
suitable  rack,  which  is  built  with  a  tight  bottom 
and  made  rather  narrow  so  that  all  the  fodder  can 
be  reached  from  both  sides.  Slats  are  nailed  up 
and  down,  allowing  just  enough  room  between  for 
each  lamb  to  insert  its  head.  This  prevents  the 
stalks  from  being  pulled  out  and  trampled  under 
foot.  Enough  fodder  is  put  in  the  racks  each  morn- 
ing to  furnish  the  amount  of  grain  recommended 
for  a  day's  allowance.  It  is  difficult  to  be  entirely 
exact  with  the  grain,  but  by  feeding  a  certain  num- 
ber of  bundles,  increasing  this  number  as  desired, 
sufficient  accuracy  for  practical  purposes  can  be 
had.  Bundles  made  by  modern  corn  harvesters  are 
quite  uniform  in  size,  and  it  is  a  very  easy  matter 
to  determine  the  proportion  of  grain  to  stalk  by 
husking  out  a  few  bundles  and  measuring  the  ears. 
The  lambs  not  only  shell  off  the  corn  from  the  cob, 
but  also  eat  the  leaves  and  upper  part  of  the  stalk. 
The  butts,  or  lower  third  of  the  stalk,  contain  but 
little  nourishment  and  should  be  thrown  out  each 
day.  Corn  fed  in  this  way,  with  all  the  hay  that 
will  be  consumed  (which  may  be  either  clover, 


236  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

alfalfa  or  cowpea  hay),  will  give  the  largest  profits 
obtainable,  because  little  labor  has  been  expended 
upon  the  product  fed.  A  large  quantity  of  the  pro- 
tein-rich roughness  will  be  consumed  during  the 
early  stages  of  feeding,  much  of  which  is  later  re- 
placed by  a  gradually  increased  amount  of  the  fod- 
der to  furnish  more  grain. 

At  no  time  is  it  really  necessary  to  purchase  con- 
centrated protein  foods,  because  the  nitrogenous 
hay  will  furnish  a  sufficiency  of  this  nutrient.  Dur- 
ing the  last  thirty  days,  rather  than  feed  all  the 
corn  in  the  shape  of  fodder,  under  which  circum- 
stances one  pound  or  more  of  corn  and  an  equal 
weight  of  stalk  to  each  lamb  might  cause  a  waste 
of  some  stalks,  it  would  not  be  unwise  to  feed  a 
little  shelled  corn  separately,  mixing  with  it  about 
ten  per  cent  of  ground  oil  cake,  or  other  protein 
concentrate.  The  wisdom  of  this  will  depend 
largely  upon  the  relative  cost  of  the  corn  and  the 
protein  concentrate.  If  oil  meal  is  more  than 
double  the  price  of  corn,  its  use  would  add  but  little 
if  any  to  the  profits. 

Shredding  corn  stover  is  commonly  practiced  in 
the  Eastern  States.  The  principal  advantages  from 
shredding  the  corn  stover  are:  (i)  that  a  little  more 
of  the  stalk  is  consumed  than  though  it  were  left 
uncut,  and  (2)  the  waste  material  is  in  better  shape 
to  use  for  bedding.  If  for  any  reason  it  is  desired 
to  feed  corn  and  the  stalk  in  a  proportion  different 
from  the  way  it  grows,  husking  must  necessarily  be 
done.  In  the  West,  where  corn-stalks  are  very 
cheap,  shredding  is  hardly  economical  because  it 
adds  so  much  to  the  cost  of  the  original  product. 
Even  in  the  Eastern  States  it  is  probably  true  that 
wherever  corn  is  fed  on  the  stalk,  cheaper  gains  are 
secured  than  when  the  same  is  husked  and  the  stalks 
shredded. 


FATTENING  RANGE  LAMBS.  237 

Feeding  Without  Corn-stalks. — Assuming  that 
the  feeding  operations  are  to  be  carried  on  at  a 
point  where  corn  in  the  stalk  is  not  on  hand,  it 
would  be  desirable  to  feed  some  prairie  hay,  cane 
or  oat  straw  with  alfalfa,  or  with  clover  or  cow- 
pea  hay.  As  the  corn,  which  is  more  commonly 
shelled  but  which  may  be  fed  on  the  cob,  is  in- 
creased, there  would  necessarily  be  a  correspond- 
ing decrease  in  the  roughness  consumed;  and  the 
prairie  hay,  or  other  such  roughness,  is  the  part 
which  should  be  diminished,  in  order  that,  finally, 
when  a  large  amount  of  corn  is  being  consumed,  the 
roughness  may  consist  almost  entirely  of  the  clover, 
alfalfa  or  cowpea  hay.  With  such  roughness  no 
protein  concentrate  need  be  fed  with  corn. 

Feeding  Without  a  Protein  Roughness. — If  no 
one  of  the  three  forms  of  nitrogenous  roughness  is 
available,  it  would  be  necessary  to  purchase  a  pro- 
tein concentrate,  such  as  ground  oil  cake,  gluten  or 
cottonseed  meal,  mixing  the  same  with  corn,  the 
latter  constituting  from  80  to  90  per  cent  of  the 
ration.  In  this  case  whatever  roughness  is  on  hand 
would  be  fed.  Too  much  emphasis,  however,  can- 
not be  given  to  the  statement  that  an  economical 
system  of  lamb  feeding  necessitates  either  the  grow- 
ing of  clover,  alfalfa  or  cowpea  hay,  or  the  purchase 
of  the  same,  should  they  be  obtainable  at  moderate 
prices.  If  the  farm  is  limited  in  size,  it  is  ordinarily 
more  profitable  to  devote  the  entire  area  to  a  crop 
like  alfalfa,  buying  all  the  corn  fed,  rather  than  to 
purchase  hay  from  a  distance  at  the  usual  prices  or 
do  without  it. 

Clipping  Fat  Lambs. — If  some  of  the  lambs  fed  as 
described  are  not  ready  for  market  until  the  warm 
weather  of  late  March  or  April  comes,  it  is  often 
advisable  to  clip  off  the  wool,  as  lambs  thickly  cov- 
ered with  a  fleece  cannot  do  well  in  warm  weather. 


238         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

Clipped  lambs  undersell  the  undipped  practically 
the  price  of  the  wool,  so  nothing  is  gained  more 
than  comfort  for  the  lambs  and  better  gaining 
capacity. 

When  to  Sell. — Formerly  the  market  called  for 
large  lambs.  Now  it  is  the  moderate-sized,  round 
and  plump  80  to  QO-pound  lamb  which  tops  the 
market.  Lambs  should  be  sold  just  as  soon  as  they 
are  fat,  when  the  back  and  region  about  the  tail 
seem  well  covered.  About  100  good-sized  lambs 
will  fill  a  single  deck  car. 

Yearling  Sheep. — A  discussion  of  lamb  feeding 
logically  precedes  that  of  yearlings,  and  the  details 
of  lamb  feeding  have  been  fully  described,  be- 
cause, under  normal  conditions,  it  is  more  profit- 
able than  feeding  older  sheep.  After  a  sheep  reaches 
the  age  of  twelve  months  and  is  no  longer  a  lamb  in 
the  usual  sense  of  the  term,  its  market  value  per 
pound  rapidly  declines.  Yearlings  sell  on  an  aver- 
age about  $1.00  per  hundred  below  lambs.  The 
consumer  discriminates  more  in  favor  of  young 
mutton  than  young  beef  or  pork,  no  doubt  because 
lamb  mutton  possesses  in  a  marked  degree  a 
sweeter  flavor  and  is  much  more  tender  than  older 
mutton. 

Not  only  do  lambs  command  a  higher  figure  on 
the  market,  but  they  also  make  better  use  of  feed. 
This  seems  reasonable,  inasmuch  as  all  young 
animals  require  less  food  for  body  maintenance, 
utilizing  a  larger  proportion  of  the  food  given  them 
for  actual  body  increase.  This  may  be  corroborated 
by  presenting  figures  or  data  secured  by  experi- 
ment stations.  The  average  of  two  experiments  at 
the  Iowa  Station  reveals  the  following: 

Lambs.          Yearlings. 

Average    daily   gain    38  Ib.  .26  lb. 

Dry  matter  per  lb.  of  gain 8.92  Ibs.        12.84  Ibs. 

Cost  per  1  lb.  gain  .......,.,, 3-61  cents.      5,33  cents. 


FATTENING  RANGE  LAMBS.  239 

Here  was  47  per  cent  more  food  consumed  for 
each  pound  of  increase  in  weight  by  the  yearlings 
than  by  the  lambs  at  a  cost  of  47  per  cent  more  for 
producing  these  gains.  In  an  experiment  con- 
ducted at  the  Kansas  Station  in  1900,  yearlings  re- 
quired 46  per  cent  more  food  for  each  pound  of 
gain.  At  the  Montana  Experiment  Station  the  dif- 
ference in  favor  of  lambs  with  respect  to  cost  of 
gains  was  40  per  cent.  This  gives  us  strong  evi- 
dence in  favor  of  lamb  feeding  for  profitable  re- 
turns. Should  the  market  on  feeder  sheep  show  an 
unusually  wide  margin  between  the, cost  of  lambs 
and  of  yearlings  or  two-year-old  feeders,  one  would 
be  justified  in  buying  older  sheep.  A  difficulty  in 
buying  such  sheep  is  that  a  few  old  sheep  with 
poor  teeth  may  be  mixed  with  yearlings  and  not 
detected.  Feeder  lambs,  having  never  been  sheared, 
show  wool  of  an  uneven  appearance,  which  makes 
it  easy  to  detect  in  the  rlock  yearlings  or  old  sheep. 

In  feeding  yearling  sheep  or  anything  older,  the 
same  general  principles  are  to  be  kept  in  mind  as 
have  been  pointed  out  in  previous  pages  on  lamb 
feeding.  Somewhat  larger  daily  rations  are  re- 
quired, but  the  feeding  period  is  shortened  because 
the  increase  is  largely  fat,  rather  than  growth 
combined  with  fat  as  in  the  case  of  the  lamb.  Con- 
cerning the  character  of  the  ration,  it  seems  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  sheep  more  than  12  months  old 
require  a  little  less  protein  than  that  recommended 
for  lambs.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  such  sheep, 
being  larger  in  size,  also  require  more  shed  room 
and  rack  space  than  has  been  suggested  for  lambs. 
Other  than  this,  whatever  has  been  said  concerning 
methods  of  lamb  feeding  are  applicable  to  older 
sheep. 

Sheep  Feeding  as  Conducted  on  a  Large  Scale  in 
the  Semiarid  West. — In  Colorado,  Western  Ne- 


24°         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

braska  and  adjoining  territory,  sheep  feeding  is  done 
by  a  limited  few  on  an  extensive  scale.  Large  bands 
are  driven  or  shipped  from  the  range  lands  of  the 
West  and  Southwest  to  points  where  alfalfa  is 
grown  in  abundance.  There  the  sheep  are  confined 
in  corrals  which  are  divided  into  lots  to  accommo- 
date from  400  to  500  sheep,  a  larger  number  in  one 
lot  causing  confusion  in  feeding.  No  shelter  is  pro- 
vided, as  rain  or  snowstorms  are  infrequent,  and 
sheep  do  not  ordinarily  suffer  from  cold  weather, 
because  of  their  wool.  A  large  roof  area  would  be 
required  to  house  a  band  of  10,000  sheep  in  time  of 
storm  and  the  expense  of  providing  such  protection 
would  be  greater  than  any  possible  advantage  from 
its  temporary  use.  If  sheep  are  closely  quartered 
during  an  occasional  storm,  they  are  certain  to  be- 
come overheated,  contracting  colds  when  turned 
into  the  open  lot.  Everything  considered,  the  most 
rational  system  in  the  semiarid  West  is  open-lot 
feeding  with  only  windbreaks  for  protection. 

In  constructing  a  sheep  feeding  plant,  where  sev- 
eral thousand  are  to  be  fed,  it  is  important  to  have 
the  yards  arranged  so  as  to  minimize  the  labor  of 
feeding.  An  excellent  plan  is  to  have  the  yards 
in  two  rows  with  a  lane  or  driveway  between.  In 
each  lot  are  placed  rows  of  grain  troughs  sufficient 
to  accommodate  at  one  time  the  entire  number  in 
the  lot.  Between  each  two  enclosures  is  a  hay  yard 
about  12  feet  wide,  extending  the  width  of  the  lot 
If  hay  is  stacked  within  these  narrow  yards,  it  may 
be  thrown  off  each  night  and  morning  and  scattered 
along  the  fence,  where  the  sheep  reach  through  to 
eat.  This  fence  has  a  7-inch  space  between  the  first 
and  second  boards — just  large  enough  for  a  sheep 
to  introduce  its  head.  About  one  foot  of  rack  or 
trough  room  is  allowed  each  sheep.  If  it  is  not 
convenient  to  stack  alfalfa  in  these  yards  they  are 
made  wide  enough  to  permit  a  load  of  hay  to  be 


FATTENING  RANGE  LAMBS.  24! 

drawn  through  and  scattered  along  each  side. 

At  the  extreme  end  of  each  hay  lot,  gates  are  pro- 
vided for  transferring  the  sheep  from  one  lot  to 
another  during  grain  feeding,  as  it  is  always  best 
to  clear  the  yard  of  sheep  while  grain  is  being  dis- 
tributed in  the  troughs.  This  is  accomplished  by 
providing  one  extra  lot  at  the  end  of  each  row  of 
lots.  The  feeding  each  morning  and  night  begins 
by  driving  into  the  vacant  end-lot  with  a  load  of 
corn.  Two  men,  by  the  use  of  wooden  buckets  or 
coal  scuttles,  distribute  the  grain,  while  the  third 
on  the  wagon  drives  and  fills  the  buckets.  When 
the  troughs  are  filled,  the  gate  between  this  and  the 
second  lot  is  opened  and  the  sheep  rush  through, 
leaving  the  second  lot  vacant  for  the  distribution  of 
grain.  This  is  continued  until  all  are  fed.  The 
next  meal  time,  feeding  begins  on  the  other  end  of 
the  row,  and  each  lot  is  moved  in  the  direction  op- 
posite that  of  the  previous  feeding. 

Water  troughs  are  placed  along  the  side  next 
the  main  driveway.  Some  feeders  prefer  hand 
pumps  to  windmills,  because  water  may  be  pumped 
as  needed,  whereas  if  it  stands  in  the  troughs  it 
sometimes  becomes  ice  cold  and  sheep  do  not 
always  drink  as  much  as  they  should.  Then,  too, 
it  may  be  pumped  during  the  middle  of  the  day 
when  the  attendants  are  not  busy  feeding.  Salt 
placed  in  troughs,  which  are  never  allowed  to  be- 
come empty,  is  the  method  by  which  this  mineral 
is  usually  furnished.  With  a  feeding  plant  such 
as  has  been  described,  four  men  can  care  for  10,000 
head  of  sheep.  If  the  markets  are  favorable,  small 
fortunes  are  sometimes  made  in  one  year  by  oper- 
ating such  an  extensive  plant ;  on  the  other  hand, 
if  there  comes  a  slump  in  prices,  the  loss  may  be 
heavy. 


242 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


FATTENING   RANGE  LAMBS.  243 

Barley  for  Lambs. — This  grain  is  commonly 
grown  in  sections  not  well  adapted  for  corn  grow- 
ing, where  it  takes  the  place  of  corn  in  the  grain 
ration.  Like  corn,  it  is  a  starchy  food,  but  con- 
tains a  somewhat  higher  per  cent  of  protein,  more 
crude  fiber  and  less  fat.  From  its  composition  it 
wo'ild  seem  reasonable  to  think  that  the  hulless 
varieties  of  barley  would  be  quite  as  good  as  corn 
pound  for  pound.  Common  barley  contains  con- 
siderable crude  fiber  because  of  the  hull,  and  for 
that  reason  is  not  quite  as  valuable  as  corn  for  feed- 
ing purposes.  Experiment  station  tests  indicate 
that  about  5  per  cent  more  barley  than  corn  is  re- 
quired for  one  pound  of  gain,  which  means  by 
weight,  and  not  by  the  bushel.  Were  barley  worth 
40  cents  per  bushel,  corn  would  be  worth  about  60 
cents  per  bushel.  Barley  should  be  fed  unground 
to  sheep,  and  supplemented  by  other  foods,  as  has 
been  described  for  corn. 

Ernmer,  commonly  called  speltz  in  America,  is 
of  comparatively  recent  introduction.  It  seems  to 
stand  dry  weather  better  than  corn,  which  makes 
it  a  crop  worthy  of  consideration  in  the  semiarid 
West.  Its  chemical  composition  is  strikingly  simi- 
lar .to  barley,  the  principal  difference  being  its 
greater  crude  fiber  content.  As  it  ordinarily  comes 
from  the  thresher  it  contains  more  hull  than  does 
barley,  which  explains  the  higher  percentage  of 
crude  fiber.  As  yet  but  few  experiment  station  tests 
have  been  made  with  emmer  fed  in  comparison 
with  barley.  The  results  of  two  trials  made  at 
the  South  Dakota  Experiment  Station  show  that 
about  one-third  larger  gains  were  secured  from 
feeding  sheep  a  given  weight  of  barley  than  from 
emmer,  and  that  either  corn  or  barley  mixed  with 
emmer  is  better  than  this  grain  alone.  At  the  Colo- 
rado Experiment  Station,  where  these  grains  were 


244         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

fed  with  alfalfa,  emmer  gave  as  good  returns  pound 
for  pound  as  corn,  and  13  per  cent  better  than  bar- 
ley. It  is  probable  that  in  Colorado,  where  the 
atmosphere  is  very  dry,  the  emmer  might  have 
shelled  more  than  the  barley.  Before  a  reliable 
comparison  can  be  made,  further  trials  must  be 
conducted. 

Wheat  may  be  fed  successfully  to  sheep,  and 
although  the  kernels  are  small  and  hard,  it  may  be 
fed  'unground  to  this  class  of  animals.  From  tests 
made,  wheat  is  the  equivalent  of  corn,  pound  for 
pound.  If  the  ration  lacks  protein  it  is  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  slightly  better  results  would  come 
from  wheat  feeding,  but  if  there  is  an  abundance 
of  protein  the  gains  from  corn  would  certainly  be 
as  great.  Wheat  may  be  profitably  fed  when  its 
price  per  hundred  is  no  greater  than  corn. 

Wheat  screenings,  if  of  good  quality,  are  equal  to 
corn  for  sheep,  but  greatly  inferior  if  of  low  grade. 
In  the  neighborhood  of  elevators  and  flour-mills, 
good  screenings  may  often  be  had  at  a  price  below 
corn. 

Oats  are  relished  by  sheep  and  when  they  may 
be  had  at  a  price  per  hundred  no  greater  than  corn, 
they  should  form  at  least  a  part  of  the  grain 
ration.  Oats  contain  the  digestible  nutrients  in 
a  proportion  very  close  to  requirements  for  lambs. 
Should  the  grain  ration  consist  entirely  of  oats, 
then  somewhat  less  roughness  would  be  consumed, 
because  of  the  hull.  If  oats  are  fed  with  timothy 
or  prairie  hay,  not  more  than  half  the  oil-cake 
recommended  for  corn  feeding  will  be  required. 
Even  if  oats  should  be  slightly  higher  than  corn 
per  hundred,  it  might  pay  to  make  them  one-fourth 
to  one-third  the  grain  ration  for  the  sake  of  va- 
riety, because  variety  has  a  tendency  to  stimulate 
the  appetite,  providing  the  foods  are  palatable.  If, 


FATTENING  LAMBS  IN   THE  FALL.  245 

however,  by  furnishing  a  variety  of  foodstuffs  the 
expense  is  considerably  increased,  it  is  not  practi- 
cable. 

Rye  is  similar  to  wheat  in  composition,  but  is 
less  palatable.  Feeding  tests  tend  to  show  that 
rye  is  from  5  to  10  per  cent  below  wheat  in  value. 
This  grain  should  be  used  as  has  been  suggested 
for  corn.  Like  other  grains,  it  need  not  be  ground 
for  sheep. 

Experiment  Station  Tests  with  Lambs. — Lamb 
feeding  records,  as  reported  by  several  state  ex- 
periment stations,  are  published  on  the  two  follow- 
ing pages,  in  order  that  the  reader  may  get  a  better 
idea  of  what  constitutes  a  day's  ration  for  lambs 
of  different  weights ;  also  the  amount  of  grain  and 
hay  required  to  produce  one  pound  of  gain ;  and 
the  cost  of  this  gain  under  varying  conditions,  as 
found  in  different  states,  primarily  with  reference 
to  food  prices.  The  last  column,  showing  the  aver- 
ages for  all  the  tests  given,  should  be  a  conserva- 
tive estimate  of  what  may  be  expected  from  an 
average  lamb  under  average  conditions. 


246 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


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FATTENING  RANGE  LAMBS. 


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CHAPTER  XXIII. 

PARASITES  IN  SHEEP. 

It  is  the  history  of  sheep  husbandry  everywhere 
within  moist  latitudes  that  evil  days  befall  the 
flock  because  of  infection  from  internal  parasites. 
These  parasites,  living  within  the  digestive  tract 
of  the  sheep,  are  expelled  when  mature  and  filled 
with  eggs.  The  germs  are  thus  communicated  to 
the  grass  and  are  taken  in  by  the  lambs  and  young 
sheep,  which  become  in  turn  infected.  The  older 
sheep  may  have  harbored  these  parasites  without 
noticeable  injury  to  themselves,  but  the  lambs  suf- 
fer much  more  and  very  often  succumb  and  die. 
Thousands  of  flocks  all  through  the  corn  belt  have 
been  started  with  high  hopes,  have  thriven  for  a 
time,  then  have  become  diseased,  the  owners  dis- 
couraged and  the  sheep  dispersed.  This  is  not 
necessary.  Parasitic  diseases  are  hard  to  cure  but 
comparatively  easy  to  prevent.  A  brief  study  of 
the  nature  of  the  more  important  parasites  likely 
to  affect  sheep  will  be  helpful. 

The  stomach-worm,  Strongylus  contortus,  is  a 
small  hair-like  worm  that  inhabits  the  fourth 
stomach  of  sheep  and  lambs.  It  may  readily  be 
found  there,  just  at  the  beginning  of  the  intestine, 
sometimes  in  small  numbers  and  sometimes  in 
multitudes.  These  little  worms  do  great  damage. 
They  cause  the  diseases  called  "paper  skin,"  "black 
scours,"  and  in  the  West  lambs  so  afflicted  are 
called  "locoed."  The  presence  of  a  few  of  these 
worms  may  not  create  great  harm,  again  a  com- 

248 


PARASITES  IN  SHEEP.  249 

paratively  small  number  of  them  will  cause  the 
death  of  the  lamb.  In  the  older  sheep  they  are 
not  so  noticeable.  Very  often  a  lot  of  lambs  re- 
ceived in  the  feed  lot  are  found  to  be  afflicted  with 
scours  that  cannot  be  attributed  to  wrong  feed- 
ing. When  this  is  the  case  the  owner  should  at 
once  dissect  one  of  the  lambs,  searching  for  this 
worm,  which,  if  found  in  force,  will  explain  his 
trouble.  The  remedy  is  a  treatment  of  gasoline, 
given  after  fasting  for  at  least  sixteen  hours,  the 
dose  for  a  lamb  six  months  old  being  three  tea- 
spoonfuls  in  a  quarter  of  a  glass  of  sweet  milk,  well 
shaken  together.  The  lambs  should  be  treated  three 
times  in  succession,  twenty-four  hours  apart.  Creo- 
sote is  also  advised,  and  there  are  other  remedies, 
which  we  will  not  at  present  concern  ourselves  with, 
the  object  being  to  seek  the  cause  and  prevention,  a 
far  more  profitable  act. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  germs  of  in- 
fection are  carried  over  winter  in  the  bodies  of  the 
ewes.  When  warm  weather  comes  the  germs  are 
then  laid  upon  the  ground  and  through  the  medium 
of  short,  tender  grass  they  find  access  to  the  lambs. 
In  dry  regions  they  reach  the  lambs  through  stag- 
nant drinking  pools.  Through  this  source  come 
the  "loco"  and  "Lombriz"  of  New  Mexico,  Texas 
and  the  dry  range  country. 

When  lambs  are  born  early,  say  in  March,  and 
with  their  mothers  are  well  nourished  until  grass 
comes  in  spring,  they  will  soon  be  ready  to  wean, 
when  they  may  be  separated  from  the  ewes  and  put 
on  fresh  pasture,  with  no  old  sheep  with  them. 
Clean  lambs  on  clean  pasture  will  never  become- 
infected  and  will  remain  clean  and  profitable. 

Before  the  lambs  are  weaned  the  ewes  may  be 
shifted  often  from  one  pasture  to  another  and  the 
drinking  water  furnished  in  troughs  or  other  un- 


25O         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

contaminated  source.  This  lessens  the  liability  of 
infection. 

Ewes  and  lambs  may  be  kept  until  weaning  time 
on  sowed  pastures  of  rye,  oats,  barley  or  rape,  or 
a.  mixture  of  these.  There  is  little  liability  to  in- 
fection from  grazing  these  coarser  sowed  crops, 
as  the  lambs  hardly  bite  so  close  to  the  ground.  In 
this  case,  however,  small  grassy  lots  much  fre- 
quented by  the  flock  must  be  avoided,  as  they  are 
poison  spots  to  young  lambs. 

It  should  be  the  steadfast  aim  of  the  shepherd 
to  avoid  having  the  lambs  graze  after  their  moth- 
ers, and  as  soon  as  they  are  weaned  they  must  be 
removed  to  fresh  ground,  where  old  sheep  have  not 
grazed  that  year.  It  is  not  probable  that  infection 
remains  over  winter  in  northern  latitudes  in  the 
pasture. 

To  lessen  the  danger  of  lambs  becommg  dis- 
eased, it  is  a  safe  and  profitable  plan  to  hasten 
their  maturity  with  corn  fed  while  the  lambs  are 
yet  sucking  their,  mothers.  Thus  in  June  a  whole 
flock  of  lambs  may  be  made  to  average  a  weight 
of  eighty  pounds,  when  they  will  command  a  good 
price  and  may  as  well  be  sent  to  market.  Then 
there  is  no  danger  during  the  summer  period  for 
these  lambs.  Of  course,  the  shepherd  desires  to 
retain  his  best  ewe  lambs  to  add  to  the  flock,  and 
they  must  be  cared  for  as  indicated,  separated  from 
their  mothers  and  grazed  on  safe  pasture. 

To  breed  ewes  before  they  are 'sixteen  or  eighteen 
months  old  is  to  invite  the  gathering  of  parasites, 
as  it  weakens  the  resisting  power  of  the  young 
ewes  and  makes  them  the  more  ready  host  for  the 
destroying  worms. 

The  nodular  disease  of  the  intestines  is  almost 
as  serious  a  plague  as  the  stomach-worm.  It  is  a 
disease  generally  of  slow  progression,  and,  unlike 


PARASITES  IN  SHEEP.  25! 

the  stomach-worm,  is  hard,  if  not  impossible,  to 
reach  with  medicine.  The  nodular  disease  causes 
little  tumors  upon  the  intestines,  commonly  called 
"knotty  guts,"  which  unfit  the  intestines  for 
sausage  casings.  Unfortunately  this  is  the  least 
of  the  harm  that  they  do.  The  digestion  and  as- 
similation is  seriously  affected,  the  sheep  eats 
ravenously  but  gets  thin  and  in  the  end  dies.  For- 
tunately it  is  not  so  swift  or  rapidly  spread  as  the 
work  of  the  stomach-worm. 

Seeing  that  medicine  can  do  little  or  nothing 
for  the  nodular  disease,  the  course  is  one  of  pre- 
vention, and  measures  should  include  the  method 
of  pasturing  just  outlined  to  prevent  the  increase 
of  stomach-worms  and  the  sale  of  infected  sheep  or 
those  suspected  of  being  unhealthy. 

It  is  a  safe  rule  to  permit  no  sheep  to  remain 
upon  the  farm  that  has  a  cough,  that  is  drooping, 
has  a  dead,  thriftless  wool,  or  that  persists  in  re- 
maining in  thin  flesh.  Naturally  the  best  ewes 
will  become  thin  when  suckling  their  lambs,  but 
if  they  are  in  health  they  should  soon  recover  if 
afterward  they  have  sufficient  food. 

It  used  to  be  supposed  that  Merino  sheep  were 
less  subject  to  internal  parasites  than  sheep  of  the 
mutton  breeds.  This  is  not  true.  Sometimes 
Merinos  seem  of  tougher  fiber  and  live  longer  than 
other  breeds  when  infected,  but  they  are  unprofit- 
able unless  in  health.  The  long  wools — Lincolns, 
Leicesters  and  Cotswolds — seem  less  resistant  than 
Shropshires,  Southdowns  and  Dorsets,  Oxford 
Downs  seem  readily  infested.  Whatever  breed  is 
kept,  the  management  should  be  the  same,  as  no 
sheep  is  profitable  when  diseased. 

After  saying  so  much  upon  this  question  of  para- 
sites some  may  be  deterred  from  undertaking  to 
keep  sheep  at  all.  This  would  be  unwise.  Fore- 


252         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

warned,  no  one  need  suffer  from  the  pests.  On  a 
small  farm  in  Ohio,  a  State  peculiarly  subject  to 
parasitic  infection,  Mr.  Joseph  E.  Wing  has  for 
fourteen  years  kept  a  flock  of  Dorset  ewes.  The 
flock  is  small,  about  150  all  told,  but  it  is  kept  on 
a  rather  limited  area  of  land.  In  the  early  '90*8  para- 
sites made  sad  havoc  in  this  flock.  In  1896  nearly 
all  the  lambs  died.  Since  then,  by  better  manage- 
ment, the  plague  of  parasites  has  almost  disap- 
peared, and  the  profit  of  the  flock  much  increased. 
These  sheep  have  been  kept  each  year  on  the  same 
land,  but  not  continuously. 


PART  V 

SWINE 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

TYPES  OF  HOGS. 

Swine  Husbandry  Extensive. — No  animal  has 
yielded  more  revenue  to  the  average  American 
farmer  than  the  hog.  The  favor  shown  this  ani- 
mal is  not  because  he  possesses  more  attractive 
qualities  than  are  found  in  other  farm  animals,  but 
rather  for  more  practical  reasons  which  appeal  to 
the  masses  who  till  the  soil,  (i)  The  feeding  of 
swine  requires  less  capital  than  the  feeding  of  other 
domestic  animals.  A  small  sum  invested  in  brood 
sows  will,  in  a  year's  time,  return  many  fold  to  the 
purchaser,  which  makes  swine  husbandry  possible 
on  practically  all  farms,  whether  large  or  small,  or 
whether  operated  by  owner  or  renter.  (2)  A  large 
number  of  hogs  may  be  kept  within  a  compara- 
tively small  space,  requiring  less  fencing  than  is 
necessary  for  other  farm  animals.  (3)  Hogs  are 
easily  fed  and  handled.  (4)  They  are  the  farm's 
scavengers,  consuming  kitchen  waste  and  other 
refuse  which  nothing  else  will  consume,  material 
which,  were  it  not  for  the  hog,  would  be  wasted. 
For  these,  and  perhaps  still  other  reasons,  the  hog 
is  found  more  widely  distributed  over  the  farming 
districts  than  any  other  class  of  animals. 

*S3 


254 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING* 


Photo  by  Breeder's  Gazette 
Lard  Type — An  English  Champion  Berkshire  Boar. 


Photo  by  Breeder's  Gazette 
*     Bacon  Type — An  English  Champion  Tamworth  Boar. 


TYPES  OF  HOGS.  255 

The  Improved  Breeds  of  Swine  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes  or  types,  the  Lard,  or  fat  type,  and 
the  Bacon  type.  The  lard  class  includes  the  Berk- 
shire, Poland-China,  Duroc-Jersey,  Chester  White, 
and  a  few  other  Breeds  less  common  in  America. 
All  hogs  of  the  lard  type  are  so  called  because  of 
their  inherent  tendency,  when  heavily  fed,  to  store 
in  their  carcasses  a  large  proportion  of  fat. 

The  Conformation  of  the  Lard,  or  Fat,  Hog. — 
The  ideal  lard  hog  should  be  broad  and  deep  in 
body,  supported  by  strong,  well-placed  legs  and 
feet.  As  with  the  beef  steer,  the  fat  hog  has  its 
high-priced  meat  along  the  back,  loin  and  hams. 
The  hog  differs  from  the  steer  in  that  a  relatively 
higher  valuation  is  placed  upon  the  ham,  or  what 
corresponds  to  the  thigh  of  the  steer.  The  side 
meat  on  the  hog  is  also  valuable  because  it  is  used 
for  bacon.  Too  much  length  of  body  is  objection- 
ble,  because  it  means  somewhat  later  maturity,  with 
consequent  slower  fattening  proclivities.  A  long 
body  is  also  more  likely  to  give  to  the  animal  a 
drooping  back,  whereas  a  slight  arching  is  really 
wanted.  On  the  other  hand,  too  much  compactness 
of  body  may  dwarf  the  growth  of  the  animal,  which 
is  especially  true  when  there  is  over-refinement  of 
bone.  There  is,  then,  danger  of  having  the  body 
too  short  as  well  as  too  long. 

The  following  score-card,  suggested  by  Craig, 
gives  a  detailed  description  of  the  ideal  fat  barrow 
and  the  relative  importance  of  the  various  parts 
of  the  animal: 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOE  FAT  HOGS— BABROW. 

Perfect 
General  Appearance:  score. 

Weight,  score  according  to  age .-*       6 

Form,  deep,  broad,  low,  symmetrical,  compact,  standing 
squarely  on  legs   10 


256         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

Quality,  hair  silky;   skin  fine;  bone  fine;  flesh  smooth, 

mellow  and  free  from  lumps  or  wrinkles 10 

Condition,  deep,  even  covering  of  flesh,  especially  in  re- 
gion of  valuable  cuts 10 

Head  and  Neck: 

Snout,  medium  length,  not  coarse 1 

Eyes,  full,  mild,  bright 1 

Face,  short ;  cheek  full 1 

Ears,  fine,  medium  size,  soft 1 

Jowl,  strong,  neat,  broad 1 

Neck,  thick,  medium  length 1 

Forequarters : 

Shoulders,  broad,  deep,  full,  compact  on  top 6 

Breast,  advanced,  wide 2 

Legs,   straight,   short,   strong;  bone  clean;  pasterns  up- 
right ;  feet  medium  size 2 

Body: 

Chest,  deep,  broad ;  large  girth 2 

Sides,  deep,  lengthy,  full;  ribs  close  and  well  sprung.  ...  6 

Back,  broad,  straight,  thickly  and  evenly  fleshed 10 

Loin,  wide,  thick,  straight 10 

Belly,  straight,  even 2 

Hindquarters : 

Hips,  wide  apart,  smooth 2 

Rump,  long,  wide,  evenly  fleshed,  straight 2 

Ham,  heavily  fleshed,  plump,  full,  deep,  wide 10 

Thighs,  fleshed  close  to  hocks 2 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong;  bone  clean;   pasterns  up- 
right ;  medium  size  feet 2 

Total 100 

The  score-card  is  of  special  importance  for  the 
use  of  one  who  needs  a  herd  boar,  whether  for 
grade  or  registered  stock.  As  was  mentioned  regard- 
ing cattle,  the  influence  of  the  male  in  determining 
the  character  of  the  offspring  is  as  great  as  the  en- 
tire herd  of  sows  to  which  he  is  bred;  if  a  pure- 
bred, which  he  should  be,  and  the  sows  are  grades 
or  mixed  bred,  the  boar  counts  for  more  than  half 
the  herd  because  of  his  greater  prepotency.  For 
this  reason  unusual  care  should  be  taken  in  mak- 
ing the  selection  of  a  herd  boar. 

While  the  score-card  shown  is  arranged  for  a 
fat  barrow,  the  same  general  form  is  wanted  in  a 
boar?  since  "like  begets  like/'  It  is  understood, 


TYPES  OF  HOGS.  257 

however,  that  the  boar  should  have  certain  quali- 
ties denoting  masculinity,  which  the  barrow  does 
not  possess.  A  little  more  coarseness  in  the  head, 
neck  and  shoulder  gives  a  slight  variation  in  the 
type  outlined  by  the  score-card,  but  these  qualities 
are  desirable,  because  they  indicate  greater  pre- 
potency; in  other  words,  more  certainty  in  trans- 
mitting characteristics  to  offspring.  The  boar 
should  also  show  a  little  more  bone  than  is  desir- 
able for  the  fat  barrow,  which  goes  with  masculin- 
ity. A  small,  fine  bone  is  objectionable  in  any 
hog,  because  it  does  not  give  the  animal  sufficient 
framework  upon  which  to  build.  Furthermore,  an 
extremely  fine  bone  is  associated  with  delicacy  of 
constitution  and  lack  of  vigor.  Heavy  hogs  in  high 
condition  oftentimes  do  not  have  sufficient  strength 
in  the  thigh  bone  to  support  their  weight,  and  a 
breakdown  results,  a  circumstance  perhaps  more 
likely  to  occur  in  the  stock  yards  after  the  hogs 
have  been  shipped  some  distance.  Weakness  in 
the  pastern,  that  part  of  the  bone  between  the 
dewclaw  and  hoof,  is  quite  common.  If  this  bone 
is  small  and  long,  it  may  bend  down  to  such  a 
degree  that  the  animal  supports  a  part  of  its  weight 
upon  the  dewclaws.  Since  m'uch  depends  upon  the 
locomotion  of  the  hog  in  the  field  and  at  the  stock 
yards,  it  is  highly  important  that  he  should  in- 
herit strong  legs  and  feet,  as  well  as  a  shapely 
body.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  effort  of  the 
farmer  to  get  bone,  he  should  guard  against  going 
to  the  other  extreme,  as  an  unduly  large  bone  is 
associated  with  coarseness,  slow-fattening  and  late- 
maturing  qualities.  The  farmer  wants  a  pig  which 
will  be  sufficiently  fat  to  market  at  the  weight  of 
200  to  250  pounds.  If  he  is  compelled  to  feed 
longer,  more  food  is  required  for  a  given  gain.  It 
is  further  true  that  the  packer  is  favorable  to  the 


258  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

25O-pound  pig,  and  is  quite  as  willing  to  pay  as 
much  for  a  hog  of  this  weight  as  for  the  old-time 
heavy  hog.  Good  type  in  hogs  means  not  only  a 
higher  price  for  the  finished  product  on  the  market, 
but  an  earlier  finish  and  a  larger  gain  from  a  given 
consumption  of  food  in  the  lot. 

Bacon  Type. — The  increasing  demand  and  con- 
sequent high  price  for  bacon  have  resulted  in  the 
development  of  a  hog  of  the  so-called  bacon  type. 
There  are  two  breeds  belonging  to  this  class,  the 
Tamworth  and  the  Yorkshire.  Both  are  long  and 
deep  in  body,  which  gives  a  large  proportion  of 
side  meat,  from  which  bacon  is  made.  The  hams 
and  shoulders  are  correspondingly  small.  One  of 
the  essentials  of  good  bacon  is  that  there  should 
be  a  maximum  of  lean  and  a  minimum  of  fat.  The 
Tamworth  and  Yorkshire  have  been  bred  for  the 
production  of  lean  tissue.  In  an  experiment  con- 
ducted by  the  writer,  where  Poland-China  pigs 
were  fed  in  the  same  pen  with  Tamworths,  the 
former  at  the  close  of  the  experiment  showed  a 
two-inch  layer  of  fat  along  the  back,  while  the 
Tamworth  had  only  a  one-inch  layer.  This  differ- 
ence was  due  entirely  to  breed,  or  type,  and  not  to 
feed.  Some  doubt,  too,  has  been  expressed  as  to 
the  gaining  capacity  of  bacon  hogs,  but  in  an  ex- 
periment where  Tamworths  were  fed  in  compari- 
son with  Poland-Chinas,  Duroc-Jerseys  and  Berk- 
shire-Tamworth  crossbreds,  all  under  like  condi- 
tions, the  Tamworths  proved  somewhat  the  most 
economical  gainers,  with  the  Tamworth-Berkshire 
crossbreds  second.  Breed  tests  are  not  always 
satisfactory,  however,  because  of  a  difference  in  in- 
dividuals within  a  breed.  Nevertheless,  from  this 
and  other  tests  it  would  be  safe  to  say  that  Tam- 
worths are  at  least  equal  to  other  breeds  as  feeders. 
The  English,  Canadian,  and  a  few  Eastern  markets 


TYPES  OF  HOGS.  259 

pay  a  premium  for  bacon  hogs,  but  as  yet  these 
are  not  produced  in  sufficient  numbers  in  the  West 
to  warrant  the  packing-houses  in  handling  them 
separately,  and  therefore  they  do  not  outsell  other 
hogs.  It  is  not  unreasonable  to  think,  however,, 
that  the  time  will  come  when  bacon  hogs  will  sell 
at  a  premium  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  if 
the  popularity  of  breakfast  bacon  continues  to  in- 
crease. 

SCOEE-CAED  FOE  BACON   HOGS,    AS   PUBLISHED   IN 
CEAIG'S  "  JUDGING  LIVE  STOCK.  > >— SCALE 
OF  POINTS. 

Possible 

General  Appearance :  score. 

Weight,  170  to  200  Ibs.,  the  result  of  thick  cover  of  firm 

flesh 6 

Form,  long,  level,  smooth,  deep 10 

Quality,  hair  fine ;  skin  thin,  smooth ;  firm,  even  covering 

of  flesh 10 

Condition,  even,  thick  covering  of  flesh,  and  not  soft, 
flabby  fat.  Thickness  of  flesh  underneath  desirable, 
smooth  covering  of  flesh,  free  from  lumps  and  wrin- 
kles, with  thick,  trim  belly 10 

Head  and  Neck: 

Snout,  fine    1 

Eyes,  full,  mild,  bright 1 

Face,  slim 1 

Ears,  trim,  medium  size 1 

Jowl,  light,  trim 1 

Neck,  medium  length,  light. . . ; 1 

Forequarters : 

Shoulders,   free   from  roughness,   smooth,   compact   and 

same  width  as  back  and  hindquarter 6 

Breast,  moderately  wide,  full 2 

Legs,   properly  set,  short,  strong  bone,  clean,  pasterns 

upright 2 

Body: 

Chest,  deep,  full  girth 4 

Back,  medium  and  uniform  in  width,  smooth 8 

Side,  long,  smooth,  level  from  beginning  of  shoulder  to 
end  of  hindquarters.  The  side  at  all  points  should 
touch  a  straight  edge  running  from  fore  to  hind 

quarter    10 

Bibs,  deep,  uniformly  sprung 2 

Belly,  trim,  firm,  thick,  without  any  flabbiness  or  shrink- 
age at  flank 10 


26O         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

Hindquarters : 

Hips,  smooth,  wide,  proportionate  to  rest  of  body 2 

Eump,  long,  even,  straight,  rounded  towards  tail 2 

Ham,  firm,  fleshed  deep,  rounded 6 

Thigh,  fleshed  low  towards  hock 2 

Legs,  properly  set,  short,  strong;  feet  medium  size....  2 

Total 100 

Digestive  Capacity  of  Swine. — No  farm  animal 
can  manufacture  so  much  meat  from  a  given  quan- 
tity of  food  as  the  pig,  provided  the  material  con- 
sumed is  in  a  more  or  less  concentrated  form.  For 
the  utilization  of  a  ration  consisting  largely  of 
bulky  matter  the  pig  is  by  nature  unadapted.  Such 
rations  are  more  economically  converted  into  beef 
or  mutton.  Whereas  cattle  and  sheep  have  four 
stomachs,  the  total  capacity  of  which  is  large,  pigs 
have  but  one,  and  that  very  limited  in  size.  To 
be  more  specific,  a  car-load  of  sheep  or  cattle  of  a 
certain  weight  have  a  combined  stomach  and  in- 
testinal capacity  nearly  three  times  as  great  as  a 
car-load  of  hogs  of  the  same  weight.  This  larger 
digestive  capacity  of  the  ruminants  makes  them 
better  adapted  for  consuming  coarse  fodders,  but 
it  gives  them  no  advantage  over  the  pig  for  grain 
feeding.  On  the  contrary,  from  the  same  weight 
of  grain,  fully  one-third  less  meat  will  be  made  by 
cattle  and  sheep  than  by  pigs.  The  pig  should, 
therefore,  be  used  to  utilize  refuse  from  the  kitchen 
and  dairy,  concentrated  foodstuffs  like  the  cereals, 
with  such  bulky  matter  as  can  easily  be  handled — 
necessarily  a  limited  amount 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

THE  BREEDING  HERD  OF  SWINE. 

Breeding  Combined  With  Feeding. — Unlike  the 
cattle  business,  in  which  it  is  customary  to  pro- 
duce large  numbers  in  cheap  grazing  sections,  to 
be  transported  later  to  the  farming  districts  for 
feeding  purposes,  the  pork  industry  must  be  begun 
and  finished  on  the  farm.  The  pig  feeder  must 
breed  and  grow  the  stock  he  fattens  for  market, 
as  the  dangers  from  cholera  are  too  great  to  make 
the  buying  of  stock  pigs  in  the  open  market  prac- 
ticable. Then,  too,  a  breeding  herd  can  be  main- 
tained on  every  farm  without  seriously  interfering 
with  market  feeding  operations,  assuming  that  this 
is  to  be  the  farm  specialty.  Unlike  cattle  and 
sheep,  hogs  are  very  prolific,  making  it  possible  to 
produce  from  a  comparatively  small  breeding  herd 
all  that  can  be  fed. 

A  Good  Brood  Sow. — Aside  from  the  qualities 
already  discussed  in  Chapter  XXIV  on  types,  the 
brood  sow  should  have  qualities  which  will  make 
her  a  satisfactory  breeder.  The  ideal  brood  sow 
is  one  which  has  the  conformation  to  make  a  good 
carcass  for  the  block;  one  which  will  respond  well 
to  feeding,  a  matter  of  inherent  vigor  and  health; 
and  one  which  will  reproduce  her  kind  in  paying 
numbers  and  care  for  them  well.  While  some  pre- 
fer one  breed  to  another,  each  of  which  has  its 
merits,  the  desirability  of  feeding-animals  is  largely 
a  question  of  type  and  individuality.  The  farmer 
should  have  good  animals,  whether  Berkshire,  Po- 


262  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

land-China,  Duroc-Jersey,  Chester  White,  Tarn- 
worth,  Yorkshire,  or  crosses  of  these. 

Winter  Quarters  for  Brood  Sows. — In  providing 
suitable  buildings  for  the  brood  sows,  it  is  first 
important  to  select  for  a  site  dry,  well-drained 
ground,  preferably  on  the  south  side  of  a  grove  or 
other  protection  from  the  winter  winds.  While 
hogs  are  fond  of  wet  ground  in  midsummer,  such 
a  place  would  not  be  suitable  during  colder 
weather,  because  mud  on  the  skin  of  the  animal 
reduces  its  temperature,  the  water  absorbing  heat 
as  it  evaporates.  Hog  houses,  as  built,  vary  from 
the  small  portable  kind  called  "cots,"  large  enough 
for  from  one  to  four  sows,  to  expensive  structures 
with  all  possible  conveniences.  For  registered 
herds  of  choice  stock,  these  costly  buildings  are 
probably  good  investments,  but  for  raising  com- 
mon market  hogs,  there  is  apt  to  be  too  large  an 
expenditure  for  the  extra  revenue  which  may  come 
from  having  such  quarters. 

The  Portable  House. — Where  the  ground  is  well 
drained  the  small  movable  house  is  satisfactory. 
Such  a  house  is  constructed  on  runner  sills,  so  that 
a  team  hitched  to  one  end  can  draw  it  to  another 
place  whenever  necessary  for  the  sake  of  cleanli- 
ness, or  when  it  is  desired  to  change  pasture  lots. 
Matched  lumber  should  be  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  these  houses  to  give  proper  protection  dur- 
ing the  winter  months  and  during  the  farrowing 
season.  On  the  next  page  is  a  photograph  of  a 
movable  house  in  use  at  the  Nebraska  Station. 

The  house  is  9  feet  long,  6  feet  wide  and  3^  feet 
to  eaves.  The  longer  roof  measures  5  feet  4  inches 
from  peak  to  lower  edge,  while  the  shorter  mea- 
sures 3  feet  3  inches.  A  small  glass  window  is 
placed  in  one  end  and  a  swinging  door  in  the  other. 
During  warm  weather  this  door  may  be  fastened 


THE  BREEDING  HERD  OF  SWINE.  263 

open,  while  during  cold  weather  it  is  left  down, 
being  hung  in  such  a  way  that  the  pigs  can  push 
it  open  when  they  wish  to  go  in  or  out,  after  which 
it  closes  by  its  own  weight.  The  trap  doors  in 
the  shorter  roof  may  be  left  open  on  pleasant  days 
in  winter  to  let  in  the  sun's  rays.  During  hot 
weather  there  would  be  a  decided  advantage  in 
having  a  second  roof  to  place  about  six  inches 


Small  Portable  Hog  House. 

above  the  first  to  permit  a  free  circulation  of  air  be- 
tween the  two  roofs.  The  air,  acting  as  a  noncon- 
ductor of  heat,  makes  the  house  much  cooler  than 
does  the  single  roof.  These  houses  have  no  floors, 
making  it  necessary  to  keep  them  well  bedded  in 
cold  weather.  A  floor  would  be  an  improvement 
for  early  spring  farrowing,  when  the  ground  is 
cold,  as  there  is  danger  of  having  too  much  bed- 
ding for  the  safety  of  pigs  just  farrowed.  To  pre- 
vent the  sow  from  lying  upon  her  pigs,  a  plank  or 
scantling  is  fastened  to  the  inner  sides  of  the 


264  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

house,  eight  or  nine  inches  from  the  ground,  pro- 
jecting ten  inches  toward  the  center  of  the  building. 
This  prevents  the  sow  from  crushing  the  pigs 
against  the  side  wall  when  she  lies  down.  The 
runner  sills  extend  in  front  a  distance  of  2  feet  and 
10  inches  and  are  sawed  to  give  an  upward  turn. 
A  plank  is  bolted  from  one  projecting  sill  to  the 
other.  To  this  the  team  is  attached  when  the  house 
is  to  be  moved.  By  the  use  of  the  small,  movable 
house  a  brood  sow  can  be  conveniently  kept  by 
herself,  which  is  unquestionably  desirable,  both  at 
farrowing  time  and  afterwards,  since  pigs  of  the 
same  age,  or  nearly  so,  do  better  together  than  do 
those  widely  different  in  age  and  size.  It  is  need- 
less to  say  that  a  place  for  storing  grain  should  be 
conveniently  near  all  feeding  lots. 

Large  houses  which  can  be  divided  into  pens 
are  more  satisfactory  on  ground  that  is  not  per- 
fectly drained,  because  floors  can  be  built  off  the 
ground.  During  bad  weather,  too,  the  feeding  may 
be  done  under  cover.  Such  a  building  would  be 
preferable  for  early  litters.  Pigs  require  warmer 
housing  than  other  farm  animals,  because,  first, 
they  have  but  a  light  coat  of  hair,  and,  secondly, 
they  are  small  in  size,  presenting  a  large  surface  in 
proportion  to  weight,  thus  losing  more  heat  by  ra- 
diation. All  lumber  should  be  matched,  the  roof 
made  tight,  and  glass  windows  should  be  made  to 
fit  well  to  prevent  drafts.  The  floors  should  be 
made  of  planks,  especially  the  floors  under  sleep- 
ing quarters.  Cement  is  not  satisfactory,  except 
for  the  alleyway  and  feeding  apartments,  because 
it  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat.  Pigs  lying  on  such 
floors  are  certain  to  be  uncomfortable  in  winter, 
as  the  cold  is  conducted  from  below  direct  to  the 
animal,  unless  a  thick  layer  of  straw  is  kept  be- 
neath at  all  times,  or  a  plank  panel,  called  an  over- 


THE  BREEDING  HERD  OF  SWINE.  26$ 

lay,  is  placed  on  the  cement  floor  to  give  a  warm 
contact. 

Feed  for  the  Brood  Sow  Before  Farrowing. — In 
feeding  a  brood  sow  before  farrowing  time,  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  not  only  the  sow  must  be 
maintained,  but  the  young  she  carries  must  be 
nourished  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  be  strong 
and  vigorous  at  birth.  Much  depends  upon  the 
sow's  ration.  If  she  is  fed  heavily  on  starchy  food, 
too  much  internal  fat  is  formed,  the  presence  of 
which  is  detrimental  to  young  in  utero.  There 
are  no  dangers  from  overfeeding,  however,  if  the 
feed  is  of  the  right  character.  Sows  are  too  often 
underfed.  There  are  three  principal  things  to  con- 
sider in  feeding  the  brood  sow:  first,  to  provide 
the  nutrients — starch,  protein,  etc.- — in  proper  pro- 
portions, or  as  nearly  so  as  possible;  secondly,  to 
furnish  sufficient  bulk  to  keep  the  system  in  a 
healthy  condition;  and,  thirdly,  to  make  such  a 
ration  as  inexpensive  as  possible. 

The  brood  sow  needs  considerable  protein,  be- 
cause it  is  largely  concerned  in  the  development  of 
her  young.  If  it  is  a  young  sow,  not  yet  mature, 
still  more  is  needed,  because  she  is  building  tissues 
for  her  own  body  as  well  as  for  her  young.  Since 
it  is  not  desired  to  crowd  the  brood  sow  for  large 
gains  as  in  the  case  of  the  fattening  animal,  it  is  bet- 
ter for  her,  and  more  economical  for  the  breeder,  to 
provide  considerable  bulky  feed.  If  there  is  kitchen 
waste  the  brood  sow  should  have  it.  Skim  milk  is 
another  very  useful  adjunct.  Assuming  that  these 
are  not  available,  or  that  they  can  be  had  only  in 
limited  quantity,  substitutes  must  be  supplied. 
Whatever  starchy  matter  she  needs  can  be  sup- 
plied most  cheaply  with  corn,  at  least  in  the  so- 
called  corn  belt.  In  the  more  Northern  latitudes, 
where  barley  is  more  successfully  grown  than 


266  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

corn,  this  cereal,  although  less  satisfactory,  could 
be  substituted  for  corn.  If  the  entire  ration  for  a 
young  sow  is  half  corn  or  barley,  say  2  per  cent  of 
her  live  weight,  or  4  pounds  per  day  for  a  200- 
pound  sow,  she  could  derive  whatever  more  nour- 
ishment is  needed  from  a  more  bulky  and  less  ex- 
pensive material.  This  should  be  a  nitrogenous 
roughness,  as  clover  or  alfalfa,  either  of  which 
will  supply  the  necessary  protein  at  a  price  much 
below  what  it  would  cost  in  some  protein  concen- 
trate, as  wheat  shorts,  or  the  more  concentrated 
oil  meal.  At  the  North  Platte  (Nebraska)  Substa- 
tion, mature  sows,  carrying  young,  maintained  fair 
thrift  on  corn  fed  in  a  quantity  equivalent  to  I  per 
cent  of  live  weight,  with  alfalfa  pasture. 

Alfalfa  or  clover  may  be  fed  as  hay  during  the 
winter  or  as  pasture  in  summer.  In  the  former 
case  there  will  be  less  waste  if  the  hay  is  first  run 
through  a  cutting  machine.  This  cut  hay  may  be 
mixed  with  corn  meal,  and  enough  water  added  to 
make  a  thick  slop ;  or,  if  corn  is  fed  on  the  cob,  the 
hay  may  be  fed  separately  and  uncut.  In  a  sec- 
tion of  the  country  where  feed  is  relatively  cheap, 
it  is  doubtful  if  enough  better  results  can  be  se- 
cured to  pay  for  cutting  the  hay  and  grinding  the 
corn.  While  some  feeders  throw  the  uncut  hay 
upon  the  ground,  it  is  cleaned  up  much  better  if 
racks  are  built,  so  that  the  sows  can  eat  the  hay 
from  below  without  throwing  it  under  foot.  For 
winter  feeding  the  last  cutting  of  alfalfa  is  prefer- 
able for  hogs,  because  that  cutting  usually  has  a 
smaller  stem  and  more  leaves,  and  the  same  is  true 
of  clover.  The  chaff  of  "either  hay  plant  is  better 
than  hay,  if  it  can  be  obtained  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity from  such  places  as  the  floor  of  the  cattle 
barn,  where  it  usually  accumulates  during  winter 
feeding. 


THE  BREEDING  HERD  O?   SWINE.  267 

Should  one  not  have  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  supply  either  wheat  shorts,  bran, 
oil  meal,  gluten  meal  or  tankage  with  the  corn.  If 
skim  milk  can  be  had,  this,  fed  with  corn  in  the 
proportion  of  i  pound  of  corn  to  3  pounds  of  skim 
milk,  will  be  entirely  satisfactory. 

At  ordinary  prices  the  dry  brood  sow  should  be 
fed  about  I  pound  of  shorts  or  bran  to  3  pounds 
of  corn ;  or  I  pound  of  gluten,  oil  meal,  or  tankage 
to  8  pounds  of  corn.  Whichever  of  the  several  foods 
is  purchased  will  depend  largely  upon  the  relative 
cost  of  the  protein,  which  cost  can  be  determined 
by  dividing  the  price  per  hundred  by  the  number 
of  pounds  of  digestible  protein  in  100  pounds  of 
food,  as  given  in  the  table  in  the  appendix.  The 
ration  for  a  dry  brood  sow  could  be  made  one-half 
oats  and  one-half  corn,  if  the  oats  are  to  be  had  at 
corn  prices  by  the  hundred.  In  the  South,  where 
soy  beans  and  cow  peas  are  grown,  there  will  be 
required  about  I  pound  of  soy  bean  meal  to  8 
of  corn,  and  I  pound  of  cowpeas  to  5  of  corn. 
Northern  field  peas  could  be  substituted  for  cow- 
peas. 

By  supplementing  corn  or  barley  with  a  protein 
food  in  any  of  the  ways  described,  the  sow  can  be 
brought  up  to  a  fair  condition  of  flesh  without  in- 
juring her  as  a  breeder.  By  virtue  of  her  flesh  at 
farrowing  time  she  will  need  less  crowding  with 
grain  while  suckling -her  pigs  than  if  she  were  to 
farrow  spare  in  flesh.  The  pigs  will  also  be  strong 
and  thrifty  at  birth. 

Feed  for  the  Brood  Sow  After  Farrowing. — Dur- 
ing the  first  twenty-four  hours  after  farrowing, 
while  the  sow  is  in  a  very  feverish  condition,  she, 
will  show  little,  if  any,  inclination  for  feed.  Water 
slightly  warmed  should  be  supplied  liberally.  A 
thin  bran  mash  is  relished  before  the  sow  regains 


268  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

her  appetite  for  heavy  feed,  as  is  also  skim  milk. 
On  the  second  day  a  slop  of  wheat  shorts  with 
bran  may  be  fed,  or,  if  these  are  not  on  hand,  four 
pounds  of  corn  may  be  mixed  with  one  pound  of 
oil  meal  and  a  small  quantity  fed.  Oil  meal  has  a 
laxative  effect,  which  is  desirable  for  the  fresh  sow. 
A  mixture  of  two  pounds  of  corn  with  one  of 
shorts  or  bran,  depending  upon  prices,  may  be  fed 
in  increasing  amounts  until  the  sow  is  eating  a 
full  feed,  which  should  require  fully  one  month's 
time  to  avoid  scours  or  thumps  in  the  pigs.  A 
day's  ration  would  then  be  about  4^2  per 
cent  of  the  live  weight  of  a  growing  sow,  and 
about  4  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  a  mature  sow 
in  average  condition.  This  heavier  ration  might 
consist  of  six  pounds  of  corn  to  one  pound  of 
oil  meal  or  gluten  meal,  as  these  foods  are 
often  cheaper  than  shorts  or  bran.  With  sufficient 
skim  milk,  four  or  five  pounds  to  one  of  corn  may 
be  fed,  in  which  case  nothing  else  is  needed.  Man- 
gel-wurzels  or  other  roots  are  excellent  for  sows 
not  on  pasture,  because  succulent  feed  promotes  a 
good  flow  of  milk.  Alfalfa  hay  at  average  prices 
is  the  rqost  economical  of  all,  and  may  be  fed. as 
soon  as  the  sow  has  fully  recovered  from  the  effects 
of  farrowing.  Not  less  than  75  per  cent  by  weight 
of  her  full  ration  should  consist  of  corn,  with  the 
remaining  25  per  cent  hay,  which  amount  will  fur- 
nish nearly  all  the  protein  needed.  Should  the  hay 
be  short  and  fine  or  in  the  form  of  chaff,  70  per 
cent  of  corn  would  keep  her  in  good  thrift.  When 
receiving  uncut  hay,  a  young  sow  should  have  3  per 
cent  of  her  live  weight  in  pounds  of  corn  and  all  the 
hay  she  will  eat. 

The  Brood  Sow  on  Pasture. — During  the  sum- 
mer months  less  corn  will  be  required  on  alfalfa 
or  clover  pasture  than  on  hay.  Half  of  a  full  feed 


THE  BREEDING  HERD  OF  SWINE.  269 

of  corn,  or  about  2  per  cent  of  the  sow's  live 
weight,  with  all  the  pasture  she  wants  is  a  cheap 
and  adeqaate  ration.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
overpasture,  both  for  the  sake  of  the  sow  and  the 
field  of  alfalfa.  It  is  always  best  to  provide  a  good 
run,  cutting  first  one-half  the  field  for  hay,  and 
when  this  has  grown  up,  the  other  half;  or  the 
sows  may  be  turned  from  one  field  into  another, 
the  second  not  to  be  cut  until  the  first  is  again  well 
started. 

Rape,  though  perhaps  not  so  well  relished  as  al- 
falfa, is  better  than  blue  grass  and  makes  a  good 
pasture  for  sows.  It  is  well  to  feed  with  blue  grass 
a  little  more  corn  than  with  rape  or  alfalfa,  be- 
cause less  pasture  will  be  consumed.  With  wheat, 
rye,  or  sorghum  pastures,  protein  foods  must  be 
given  with  corn,  which  is  one  reason  why  none  of 
these  pastures  are  as  satisfactory  as  alfalfa,  clover, 
or  rape. 

With  sows  fed  as  outlined  from  the  time  of  far- 
rowing, there  will  be  little  danger  of  the  pigs  being 
troubled  with  "thumps,"  a  disease  brought  on  by 
overfeeding  the  sow  early  in  lactation,  on  grains 
of  a  heavy  character,  at  the  same  time  depriving 
the  pigs  of  needed  exercise. 

Feeding  Dry  Sows  Which  Have  Not  Been  Bred. 
— A  sow  suckling  a  good-sized  litter,  no  matter  how 
liberally  she  may  be  fed,  is  almost  certain  to  shrink 
in  weight,  which  loss,  however,  may  be  recovered 
after  the  pigs  are  weaned.  Dry  sows  from  which 
the  pigs  have  just  been  weaned  do  well  on  good 
alfalfa  pasture  without  grain.  At  the  North  Platte 
(Nebraska)  Substation,  sows  weighing  200  pounds 
each,  gained  .43  pound  per  day  for  63  days  on 
alfalfa  pasture  with  no  grain.  In  this  connection  it 
must  be  stated  that  the  pasture  was  good  and  the 
sows  were  thin  in  flesh  at  the  time  the  pigs  were 


27O          PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

weaned.  At  the  Michigan  Station,  "five  dry  sows 
were  turned  on  June  grass  May  27,  1904*  rape  July 
9,  June  grass  again  July  25,  and  returned  to  rape 
August  6,  where  they  remained  till  September  9, 
in  all  covering  a  period  of  105  days.  No  grain  or 
supplementary  feed  of  any  sort  was  given  during 
the  entire  period,  though  the  sows  had  access  to 
water  and  shade.  During  these  105  days  there  was 
an  increase  of  two  pounds  in  the  weight  of  the 
bunch."  The  individual  record  of  each  sow  is 
shown  by  the  following: 

WEIGHTS  OF  FIVE  DRY  SOWS  DUEING  TEST  OF  105 
DAYS. 

Weight  Weight  Weight  Weight  Weight     Gain 

May  27,  July  9,  July  25,  Aug.  6,  Sept.  9.       or 

1904.      1904.      1904.  1904.  1904.       loss. 

Poland  China  ....  298         283         281  183         291.5     —6.5 

Old  Tamworth   ...   366         358         359  353         379.5  +13.5 

Poland  China  No.  1  194         180         173.5  176         180      —14 

Poland  China  No.  2  159         171         163  177         174      +15 

Poland  China  No.  3  170         163         155  157.5      164       —6 

Here  was  an  average  daily  loss  of  .42  pound  per 
sow  on  blue  grass,  and  an  average  daily  gain  of  .47 
pound  per  sow  on  rape.  However,  a  part  of  the 
shrinkage  on  grass  was  thought  to  have  been  due 
to  the  shortness  and  dryness  of  the  grass  early  in 

July. 

Feed  for  Pigs  Before  Weaning. — Young  pigs 
show  an  inclination  to  eat  from  the  trough  when 
only  two  or  three  weeks  old,  and  if  the  litter  is 
large  it  is  advisable  to  supply  them  with  food 
early.  Nothing  is  superior  to  skim  milk  mixed 
with  wheat  shorts  to  form  a  thin  porridge.  Such 
feed  is  easily  digested  and  is  rich  in  bone  and 
muscle  making  material,  and  just  what  the  young 
pigs  need.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  provide 
a  separate  trough  for  the  pigs,  around  which  is 
built  a  fence,  with  the  lower  board  close  enough  to 


THE   BREEDING  HERD  OF   SWINE,  27! 

the  ground  to  keep  out  the  mature  hogs,  yet  high 
enough  to  allow  the   pigs  to  go  beneath.       At  the 
age  of  four  weeks  it  is  well  to  add  a  little  corn 
meal  or  soaked  shelled  corn  to  the  ration,  until,  by 
the  time  the  pigs  are  old  enough  to  wean,  they  are 
being  given  a  mixture  consisting  of  equal  parts  of 
corn  and  shorts.    Some  farmers  make  a  practice  of 
weaning  at  the  age  of  seven  weeks,  but  if  the  sow 
raises  only  one  litter  per  year  the  age  of  ten  or 
twelve  weeks  is  preferable.     From  results  obtained 
at    the    Wisconsin    Experiment    Station,    it    would 
seem  that  the  gains  on  young  pigs  are  made  as  eco- 
nomically   by    feeding    a    given    weight    of    food 
through  the  dam  as  by  feeding  directly  to  the  pigs. 
The  advantage  in  depending  more  upon  the  sow  for 
the  nourishment  of  the  pigs  is  the  fact  that  the  sow 
is  able  to  consume  proportionately  more  inexpen- 
sive green  forage  than  are  the  pigs.     If,  as  some- 
times happens,  certain  pigs  in  the  litter  are  con- 
siderably  larger   than   others,   it   is    well   to   wean 
these  stronger  pigs  first,  inasmuch  as  this  will  tend 
to  make  the  entire  litter  more  even  in  size,  and  it 
will  also  be  a  more  gradual  way  of  drying  off  the 
sow. 

The  herd  boar,  during  the  season  when  not  in 
use,  should  be  given  practically  the  same  food  as 
suggested  for  the  brood  sow  before  farrowing.  If 
he  is  mature,  he  will  need  but  very  little,  if  any, 
grain,  provided  he  has  an  abundance  of  good  pas- 
ture. He  should  be  given  pasture,  not  alone  for 
the  sake  of  economy,  but  also  for  exercise — to  pro- 
mote muscular  development,  stamina  and  vigor,  so 
essential  in  a  breeding  sire.  With  any  of  the 
legumes  or  rape  for  pasture,  what  little  grain  is 
given  him  may  consist  of  corn  alone  or  mixed  with 
barley,  rye  Or  any  other  grain  novmore  costly  than 
corn.  A  boar  should  be  fed  a  little  protein  food, 


272 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


as  shorts,  oil  meal  or  tankage,  with  corn  when 
no  pasture  is  supplied,  and  proportionately  more  of 
such  foods  if  he  is  young  and  undeveloped,  al- 
though perhaps  not  to  exceed  15  per  cent  of  oil 
meal.  While  it  is  not  necessary  to  keep  the  herd 
boar  in  high  condition  throughout  the  entire  year, 
as  the  breeding  season  approaches  his  grain  ration 
should  be  increased,  in  order  to  have  him  in  good 
thrift  and  fairly  fleshy  when  used  in  the  herd.  As 
mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  breeding  sheep,  the 
number  of  offspring  is  likely  to  be  greater,  if  both 
sire  and  dam  are  gaining  rather  than  losing  in 
flesh  at  the  time  of  mating.  It  is  also  true  that 
the  propensity  of  the  offspring  to  put  on  flesh  is 
greater,  if  the  parents  are  in  good  condition  during 
the  breeding  season.  Flesh  on  one  boar  can  be 
made  with  less  expense  than  on  several  sows.  He 
should  not,  however,  be  fed  excessively  on  corn, 
nor  put  in  such  high  condition  as  will  make  him 
unsatisfactory  as  a  breeding  sire. 


Buroc-Jersey  Brood  Sow  ana  Pigs. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

FATTENING  PIGS  IN  THE  FALL. 

Summer  Feeding  Profitable. — Pigs  farrowed  in 
the  spring  as  early  as  the  weather  will  permit  are 
most  profitable  under  average  conditions,  because 
they  can  be  finished  for  market  in  the  fall.  Sum- 
mer and  fall  feeding  is  profitable  for  two  reasons: 
(i)  pigs  have  but  a  light  coat  of  hair  for  protec- 
tion, which  makes  them  very  susceptible  to  cold 
weather ;  (2)  pasture  can  be  had  in  summer,  which 
lessens  materially  the  cost  of  producing  pork. 
Both  cattle  and  sheep  have  better  natural  protec- 
tion against  cold  than  have  pigs,  but  are  less  able 
to  stand  hot  summer  weather,  especially  when  pigs 
are  provided  with  a  shaded  wallow.  After  several 
years  of  experimentation,  the  writer  does  not  hesi- 
tate to  say  that  there  is  no  way  in  which  pork 
can  be  made  at  less  expense  than  with  grain  on 
pasture,  provided  the  grain  and  pasture  are  of  the 
right  kind.  No  matter  how  perfectly  balanced  ? 
ration  without  pasture  may  be,  from  one-fifth  to 
one-third  less  grain  will  be  required  for  a  given  gain 
if  good  pasture  is  supplied.  At  the  Nebraska  Ex- 
periment Station,  pork  which  was  worth  on  the 
market  $5  per  hundred,  live  weight,  was  made  at  a 
cost  of  $2.43  per  hundred  with  corn  and  alfalfa 
pasture,  the  corn  being  worth  at  the  time  30  cents 
per  bushel  and  the  alfalfa  pasture  $5  per  acre.  At 
another  time,  when  corn  was  worth  56  cents  per 
bushel,  gains  were  made  at  a  cost  of  $4.13  per  hun- 
dred, at  which  time  live  pork  was  worth  on  the 
ket  $7.50  per  hundred. 


274         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

Feeding  Pigs  When  First  Weaned. — When  pigs 
are  first  weaned,  some  time  in  May  or  early  June, 
they  are  hardly  large  enough  to  derive  all  their 
protein  from  forage  crops.  Young  pigs  need  more 
protein  than  older  pigs,  because  they  are  growing 
rather  than  fattening.  They  should  be  given  either 
alfalfa,  clover  or  rape  pasture,  and  with  such  feed 
the  grain  may  be  more  largely  corn  than  with  pas- 
ture less  rich  in  protein.  For  rapid  gains  in  pigs 
nothing  is  superior  to  qorn  meal  and  skim  milk. 
Enough  of  the  latter  should  be  used  to  make  a  slop 
thin  enough  to  distribute  itself  quickly  in  the 
trough.  Without  skim  milk,  a  slop  containing  two 
pounds  of  corn  meal  and  one  pound  of  wheat  shorts 
gives  excellent  results  on  pasture.  If  shorts 
are  high  in  price,  one  pound  of  dried  blood 
may  be  mixed  with  nine  pounds  of  corn  meal;,  or 
one  pound  of  oil  meal  or  soy  bean  meal,  with  five 
pounds  of  corn  meal.  Oil  meal,  however,  some- 
times induces  scours  in  pigs,  and  for  that  reason 
is  less  satisfactory  than  dried  blood.  Dried  blood 
is  also  preferable  to  tankage  for  young  pigs,  be- 
cause the  latter  contains  some  animal  fat,  which 
is  difficult  for  them  to  digest  and  is  very  likely  to 
cause  scours.  In  feeding  any  of  these  mixtures, 
there  should  be  .given  all  that  will  be  cleaned  up 
quickly  twice  per  day.  This  will  be  about  three- 
fourths  of  what  they  would  consume  without  pas- 
ture. 

Feeding  Shoats. — As  the  pigs  grow  larger,  the 
proportion  of  corn  may  gradually  be  increased. 
After  a  weight  of  75  to  100  pounds  has  been 
reached,  it  would  be  most  economical  to  feed  corn 
alone  with  pasture,  unless  corn  is  high  in  price  and 
supplementary  foods  low.  In  a  Nebraska  experi- 
ment somewhat  larger  gains  were  secured  by  sup- 
plementing corn  on  alfalfa,  but  the  cost  of  gains 
was  less  on  corn  and  alfalfa  without  a  supple- 


FATTENING  PIGS  IN  THE  FALL.  275 

ment.  The  same  thing  was  shown  at  the  South 
Dakota  Station,  where  barley  and  rape  pasture  gave 
somewhat  smaller,  but  cheaper  gains,  than  barley 
supplemented  with  tankage,  dried  blood,  oil  meal 
or  skim  milk.  If  one  does  not  have  corn  for  feed- 
ing pigs  on  pasture,  either  barley  or  wheat  or  rye 
may  be  fed  in  the  same  way.  In  feeding  any  of 
these  grains  on  pasture  they  should  be  ground  or 
soaked,  with  the  possible  exception  of  corn,  which 
may  be  fed  on  the  cob  or  shelled.  Still,  in  warm 
weather  it  is  not  inconvenient  to  soak  corn,  and 
when  treated  in  this  way  it  is  enough  better  to  pay 
well  for  the  trouble,  and  soaking  is  much  less  ex- 
pensive than  grinding. 

Rape  and  clover  are  both  good  pasture  plants  for 
pigs.  Experiments  at  Wisconsin  indicate  that  rape 
is  superior  to  clover.  The  field  peas  of  the  North, 
if  pastured  when  the  peas  are  just  large  enough  to 
cook,  undoubtedly  give  the  most  rapid  growth  of 
all  forage  plants,  with  the  possible  exception  of  soy 
beans,  and  less  grain  will  be  required,  at  least  while 
the  peas  last.  With  green  field  peas  a  half  feed  of 
clear  corn  meal  is  best  for  trough  feeding,  although 
a  good  growth  can  be  made  without  supplying  any 
grain  in  addition.  Cheaper  gains,  however,  are  ob- 
tained if  the  peas  are  supplemented  with  corn. 
The  disadvantage  in  growing  field  peas  for  pigs  is 
the  expense  of  the  seed  and  the  labor  of  putting  in 
the  crop  annually.  Of  the  different  forage  plants, 
alfalfa  is  most  satisfactory  for  hogs,  first,  because 
it  can  be  made  a  permanent  pasture ;  secondly,  be- 
cause it  is  richest  in  protein,  making  an  excellent 
combination  with  corn ;  and,  thirdly,  because  it  has 
tender  leaves  and  a  small  stem,  which  make  it 
easily  masticated,  besides  being  greatly  relished. 
In  feeding  alfalfa  care  should  be  taken  not  to  over- 
pasture.  It  is  best  to  run  the  pigs  in  a  field  that 
can  be  mowed,  holding  in  reserve  another  to  pas- 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

ture  while  the  freshly  mown  field  is  getting  a  new 

start,  as  was  suggested  for  brood  sows.  Pigs 
which  show  an  inclination  to  root  in  the  sod  should 
be  rung.  In  pasturing  forage  crops,  portable  fences 
may  be  built  and  moved  about  from  one  season  to 
another.  For  alfalfa,  woven  wire  is  desirable, 
since,  with  a  crop  that  does  not  need  reseeding 
year  after  year,  a  stationary  fence  is  best.  Woven 
wire  two  feet  in  width  will  answer.  Such  a  fence 
can  be  made  to  turn  cattle  by  stretching  one  or  two 
strands  of  barb  wire  along  the  top. 

Heavy  Corn  Feeding  on  Alfalfa  Pasture  Most 
Profitable. — March  pigs  may  be  made  ready  for 
market  at  the  close  of  the  pasturage  season,  weigh- 
ing in  O'ctober  or  November  from,  200  to  250 
pounds  each.  This  can  be  done  only  when  grain 
has  been  fed  liberally  from  start  to  finish.  In  fact, 
when  corn  is  not  excessively  high  in  price,  the  lib- 
eral use  of  grain  on  pasture  seems  to  be  most  eco- 
nomical. At  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station 
four  lots  of  pigs,  ten  in  each  lot,  were  given  alfalfa 
pasture  with  corn  in  varying  amounts.  The  aver- 
age record  for  each  pig  in  the  four  lots  is  shown  by 
the  following  table: 

Lot  2.        Lot  3.        Lot  4. 

Lot  1.      Light      Medium     Heavy 

No          grain        grain         grain 

grain,      ration,     ration,      ration. 

Pounds.  Pounds.  Pounds.  Pounds. 

A v.  wt.  of  each  pig,  Aug.  27. .   74.0  73.5  73.5         72.5 

Av.  wt.  of  each  pig,  Oct.  27. .   75.4  95.2         113.3       126.2 

Av.    gain    from   Aug.    27    to 

Oct.  27 1.4          21.7          39.8        53.7 

Daily  gain  per  pig 02  .34  .63          .85 

Av.    amt.    of   corn    consumed 

by  each  pig  per  day 1.33  2.48        3.46 

Corn  consumed  per  pound  of 

gain 3.86          3.98        4.23 

Cost  of  corn  per  100  Ibs.  of 

gain 2.08  2.15         2.28 

Cost  of  pasture  per  100  Ibs. 

of  gain   $14.30         $0.66        $0.30       $0.15 

Total  cost  per  100  Ibs.  of  gain  14.30          2.74          2.45        2.43 


FATTENING  PIGS  IN  THE  FALL.  2/7 

In  making  the  estimates  for  cost  of  gains,  corn 
at  the  time  was  worth  30  cents  per  bushel  in  Lin- 
coln, Nebraska,  and  alfalfa  pasture  was  valued  at 
$5  per  acre  for  the  growing  season  of  five  months, 
which  would  be  $2  per  acre  for  the  two  months 
the  experiment  was  in  progress.  In  this  experi- 
ment the  alfalfa  fields  were  all  of  the  same  size 
and  large  enough  to  harvest  hay  while  the  pigs 
were  on  pasture.  During  the  previous  summer  it 
was  found  that  one  acre  of  alfalfa  would  pasture 
twenty-four  loo-pound  shoats  while  on  full  grain 
feed,  but  this  number  injured  the  stand.  In  this 
test,  one  acre  would  have  furnished  sufficient  feed 
for  10  pigs  without  grain,  or  14  pigs  receiving 
1.33  pounds  of  corn  per  day,  17  receiving  2.48 
pounds,  or  20  receiving  3.46  pounds  per  day, 
by  pasturing  to  the  limit  without  cutting  hay. 
From  these  estimates  the  cost  of  pasture  per 
pig  was  computed.  The  experiment  shows  that 
the  heaviest  fed  lot  made  somewhat  the  cheap- 
est gains.  This  lot  was  given  a  little  less  than  a 
full  feed  of  corn  the  first  month  and  all  that  would 
be  consumed  the  second  month.  Alfalfa  pasture 
can  hardly  be  figured  at  more  than  $i  per  acre 
above  the  interest  and  taxes  upon  the  land  valua- 
tion. Were  the  alfalfa  higher  in  price  the  results 
would  be  still  more  in  favor  of  the  heaviest  fed  lot. 
On  the  other  hand,  had  corn  been  higher  in  price, 
as  is  often  the  case,  Lot  3,  which  received  about 
75  per  cent  of  all  the  corn  they  could  consume, 
would  have  made  the  cheapest  gains. 

Under  average  Western  conditions  a  full  feed  of 
corn  night  and  morning  on  alfalfa  pasture  is  prob- 
ably the  most  profitable,  taking  into  consideration 
the  desirability  of  securing  such  gains  as  will  enable 
the  feeder  to  market  at  the  close  of  the  pasturage 
geason.  Pasture  without  grain  proved  to  be  little 


278  PROFITABLE* STOCK  FEEDING. 

more  than  a  maintenance  ration  for  these  pigs,  and 
was  by  far  the  most  expensive  of  all.  Such  animals 
lack  the  digestive  capacity  necessary  to  make  gains 
on  bulky  feed  alone.  Large,  thin  brood  sows  are 
able  to  make  a  growth,  because  of  a  larger  capacity. 
In  these  experiments  it  was  shown,  that  with  the 
lot  fed  grain  liberally  on  pasture,  the  same  gains 
were  made  on  about  two-thirds  of  what  grain  had 
been  consumed  in  a  previous  experiment  where  no 
pasture  was  supplied.  Pigs  running  in  pasture  not 
only  require  less  grain,  but  the  effect  of  the  exer- 
cise upon  the  general  health  of  the  animal  is  ex- 
tremely favorable  for  such  feeding.  In  another  ex- 
periment the  addition  of  5  per  cent  bone  meal  to  a 
full  ration  of  corn  with  alfalfa  pasture  lessened  the 
amount  of  grain  required  for  a  pound  of  gain  22 
per  cent.  This  is  the  result  of  a  single  trial  for  a 
period  of  two  months  with  ten  pigs  in  each  lot. 
Further  experimentation  must  follow  in  order  to 
gain  reliable  evidence  concerning  the  value  of  bone 
meal  fed  with  corn  on  alfalfa  pasture. 

Fall  Pigs.— If  a  sow  produces  but  one  litter  of 
pigs  per  year,  the  proper  time  for  farrowing  is  in 
the  spring.  In  cold  climates  it  takes  considerably 
more  feed  to  properly  nourish  a  sow  and  pigs  in 
winter  than  in  summer,  and  warmer  pens  must  be 
provided.  Only  mature  sows  should  be  expected  to 
raise  two  litters  per  year.  With  good,  liberal  feed- 
ing a  sow  can  produce  two  moderate  sized  litters 
without  harm  to  herself  or  the  pigs,  if  the  latter  are 
fed  as  early  as  possible.  With  two  litters  per  year 
it  is  advisable  to  wean  the  young  at  the  end  of  seven 
weeks,  breeding  the  sow  the  first  heat  following,  the 
period  of  gestation  being  sixteen  weeks. 

Fall  pigs  after  being  weaned  may  be  fed  liber- 
ally with  grain,  giving  corn  and  a  percentage  of  pro- 
tein foods  double  that  recommended  for  young  pigs 


FATTENING  PIGS  IN  THE  FALL. 


279 


on  pasture,  at  least  until  they  are  old  enough  to  eat 
clover  and  alfalfa  hay.  One  of  these  could  then  be 
substituted  for  a  part  of  the  protein  concentrates.  A 
liberal  system  of  grain  feeding  all  winter  and  early 
spring  would  put  them  in  condition  for  a  late  spring 
or  early  summer  market,  but  less  crowding  on  grain 
during  the  winter,  with  corn  on  pasture  until  about 
July  i,  would  in  all  probability  be  more  profitable. 
Rye  pasture  may  be  provided  for  early  spring,  but 
it  is  to  be  remembered  that  such  pasture  does  not 
provide  protein,  as  do  rape 'and  the  legumes — alfalfa, 
clover  and  cowpeas. 


Poland-Chinas  in  the  Feed-lot. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

FATTENING  PIGS  IN  WINTER. 

As  indicated  by  the  pasture  experiment  described 
in  the  previous  chapter,  when  corn  is  relatively  high 
in  price,  pork  may  be  produced  more  economically 
by  feeding  less  corn  than  would  constitute  a  full 
feed  on  pasture — a  daily  allowance  of  not  less  than 
two  per  cent,  nor  more  than  three  per  cent  of  the 
live  weight  of  the  pig  in  pounds.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances considerable  growth  would  be  secured 
during  the  summer,  and  the  fattening  accomplished 
in  winter  with  new  and  perhaps  cheaper  corn. 
Nearly  all  farmers,  too,  have  some  late  spring  pigs 
which  can  not  be  finished  by  fall,  no  matter  how 
liberally  fed,  and  must,  therefore,  be  fattened  in 
winter. 

Shelter. — In  the  economical  production  of  pork  in 
winter  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  provide  comfort- 
able quarters.  Pigs  will  not  make  satisfactory  gains 
if  left  to  shiver  for  lack  of  shelter.  Expensive  struc- 
tures are  not  necessary.  A  shed  boarded  on  all 
sides,  having  an  opening  for  entrance  on  the  leeward 
side,  with  boards,  cornstalks,  or  straw  on  top  for  a 
roof,  and  an  abundance  of  bedding  underneath,  will 
answer  the  purpose,  so  far  as  the  comfort  of  the  pigs 
is  concerned.  Such  a  shelter  is  warm  enough  in 
severely  cold  weather,  if  the  roof  is  not  too  high 
from,  the  ground.  The  temperature  can  be  more 
easily  regulated,  however,  if  the  roof  is  moderately 
high  and  on  one  side  of  the  shed  are  hung  doors 
which  can  be  left  wide  open  or  partly  closed,  ac- 
cording to  the  severity  of  the  weather.  Portable 
houses,  as  described  on  page  263,  are  also  satisfac- 

•to 


FATTENING  PIGS   IN   WINTER.  28l 

tory  for  fattening  pigs,  preventing,  as  they  do, 
overheating  caused  by  a  large  number  sleeping  in 
one  nest. 

Winter  Rations. — In  the  West,  where  corn  is 
abundant,  the  majority  of  farmers  feed  nothing  but 
this  grain,  for  reasons  readily  apparent.  A  basket 
of  ears  may  be  taken  from  the  crib  and  scattered 
upon  the  ground  with  comparatively  little  labor,  the 
pigs  shelling  the  corn  from  the  cob  with  little  diffi- 
culty and  eating  it  with  relish.  They  consume  a 
large  quantity  and  fatten  quickly,  enabling  the 
farmer  to  market  them  after  a  comparatively  short 
period  of  feeding.  But  while  fairly  good  gains  may 
be  secured  on  corn  alone,  it  does  not  follow  that  the 
best  results  are  attained  by  practicing  such  a  sys- 
tem. In  fact,  numerous  tests  made  at  different  sta- 
tions comparing  corn  alone  with  corn  supplemented 
with  other  foods  furnish  reliable  evidence  that  corn 
properly  supplemented  is  much  superior  to  corn 
alone.  From  an  economical  point  of  view,  a  100- 
pound  pig  of  average  flesh  will  show  the  largest 
gain  from  a  given  weight  of  food  when  there  is 
present  in  the  ration  about  one  pound  of  protein,  or 
flesh-making  material,  to  6.5  or  7  pounds  of  non- 
nitrogenous  material,  such  as  starches,  sugars  and 
fats.  In  corn  there  is  one  pound  of  protein,  or  ni- 
trogenous matter,  to  9.7  non-nitrogenous.  That  this 
excess  of  non-nitrogenous  matter  in  corn  is  not  uti- 
lized at  all,  or  in  very  small  part,  is  a  generally  ac- 
cepted fact,  because  it  has  been  proved  conclusively 
by  practical  feeding  tests.  This  being  true,  less 
food  for  a  given  gain  will  be  required  if  something 
rich  in  protein  is  fed  with  the  corn. 

Wheat  Shorts  a  Source  of  Protein. — At  the  Wis- 
consin Experiment  Station  5.37  pounds  of  corn  were 
required  for  one  pound  of  gain,  and  5.22  pounds  of 
wheat  shorts  were  required  for  the  same  gain  when 


282  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

each  was  fed  separately.  By  combining  the  two  in 
equal  proportions  by  weight,  only  4.4  pounds  of 
the  mixture  were  required  for  one  pound  of  gain. 
In  this  experiment  there  was  required  about  one- 
fifth  less  corn  for  a  pound  of  gain  when  the  corn 
was  mixed  with  wheat  shorts.  At  the  South  Da- 
kota Station  16  per  cent  more  grain  was  required 
for  producing  a  given  gain  on  shoats  weighing  114 
pounds,  when  corn  alone  was  fed,  than  when  the 
grain  consisted  of  equal  parts  of  corn  and  shorts.  In 
this  experiment  shorts  cost  the  same  price  per  hun- 
dred as  the  corn,  and  the  profits  were  therefore  16 
per  cent  greater  by  mixing  the  two  together.  It 
was  also  found  in  this  experiment  that  the  gains 
from  corn  and  shorts  were  10  per  cent  larger  and  10 
per  cent  cheaper  than  from  shorts  alone.  In  a  Mis- 
souri test,  when  20  per  cent  of  the  grain  ration  con- 
sisted of  shorts,  21  per  cent  less  feed  was  required 
for  each  pound  of  gain  than  when  corn  alone  was 
fed.  At  the  same  station  30  per  cent  was  saved  by 
making  the  ration  33  per  cent  shorts.  In  Nebraska 
27  per  cent  was  saved  by  feeding  20  per  cent  of 
shorts,  and  in  an  Indiana  test  with  5o-pound  pigs, 
38  per  cent  was  saved  by  feeding  equal  parts  of 
shorts  and  corn  in  comparison  with  corn  alone. 

In  wheat  shorts  there  is  present  one  pound  of 
protein,  or  nitrogenous  matter,  to  four  pounds  of 
non-nitrogenous.  There  is,  therefore,  a  defi- 
ciency of  the  non-nitrogenous,  or  starchy,  mate- 
rial in  this  foodstuff.  By  mixing  shorts  with  corn 
we  are  able  to  secure  a  proportion  of  nutrients 
which  more  nearly  meets  the  requirements  of  the 
animal.  The  most  economical  proportion  of  corn 
to  shorts  depends  upon  current  prices.  If  corn 
sells  relatively  high  and  shorts  low,  equal  parts  of 
the  two  would  be  profitable  for  fattening  hogs.  It 
is  usually  the  case,  however,  that  shorts  are  worth 


FATTENING   PIGS    IN    WINTER.  283 

considerably  more  per  hundred  than  corn.  Under 
these  circumstances  better  profits,  but  perhaps 
somewhat  smaller  gains,  would  be  obtained  by  feed- 
ing a  larger  proportion  of  corn.  At  average  West- 
ern prices,  the  proportion  of  three  pounds  of  corn 
to  one  pound  of  wheat  shorts  is  ordinarily  most 
profitable.  This  proportion  can  be  varied  slightly, 
according  to  current  prices.  Should  corn  ever  reach 
the  low  mark  of  10  cents  per  bushel,  as  it  did  in  the 
West  at  one  time,  and  protein  foods  remain  high  in 
price,  then  it  would  be  profitable  to  feed  corn  alone. 
At  that  price  the  feeder  could  better  afford  to  waste 
the  excess  of  starch  in  corn  than  buy  any  protein 
foods  to  balance  the  ration  and  convert  the  whole 
into  meat. 

Concentrated  Protein  Foods. — There  are  years 
when  wheat  shorts  are  too  high  to  be  used  by  the 
feeder.  As  a  substitute  the  farmer  has  at  his  disposal 
such  commercial  protein  foods  as  oil  meal,  gluten 
meal  and  tankage,  which,  as  the  table  in  the  ap- 
pendix shows,  contain  a  little  more  than  twice  as 
much  protein  as  is  found  in  wheat  shorts.  It  will 
also  be  noted  that  the  soy  bean,  grown  in  the  South- 
ern States,  contains  about  the  same  as  is  found  in  oil 
meal  or  gluten  meal.  A  ration  made  up  of  eight 
pounds  of  corn  to  one  pound  of  any  one  of  these 
four  foods  will  answer  the  same  purpose  as  the  ra- 
tion of  corn  and  shorts  in  the  proportion  suggested. 
In  an  Indiana  experiment,  where  light  pigs  were 
fed  two-thirds  corn  and  one-third  soy  bean  meal 
in  comparison  with  corn,  46  per  cent  less  of  the 
former  feed  was  required  for  a  given  gain.  The 
Missouri  Station  found  oil  meal  with  corn  a  de- 
cided advantage. 

Cottonseed  Meal  Often  Poisonous  for  Pigs. — Cot- 
tonseed meal,  another  Southern  product,  while 
rich  in  protein,  containing  even  more  than  the  food- 


284  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

stuffs  mentioned,  cannot  safely  be  used  in  pig  feed- 
ing, because  of  its  deleterious  effects  upon  the  sys- 
tem. Pigs  fed  even  a  small  proportion  of  cotton 
seed  meal  are  apt  to  become  sick,  and  if  the  feeding 
is  continued  they  often  die.  The  Texas  Station  re- 
ports its  successful  use  for  pigs,  but  Northern  feed- 
ers should  not  risk  it  so  long  as  there  are  other 
protein  foods  on  the  market  at  corresponding  prices. 
Running  pigs  behind  cattle  fed  cottonseed  meal, 
however,  seems  to  be  entirely  safe. 

Skim  milk  may  be  fed  to  fattening  pigs  and  will 
furnish  all  the  protein  needed  if  supplied  in  suffi- 
cient quantity.  Three  pounds  of  skim  milk  mixed 
with  one  pound  of  corn  meal  makes  a  very  satis- 
factory ration  for  fattening  swine.  It  has  been 
found  by  experiments  that  fattening  pigs  fed  liber- 
ally upon  skim  milk  mixed  with  meal — mostly  corn 
— can  be  made  to  eat  more  feed  per  day  and  will 
make  larger  gains  than  on  any  combination  of  foods 
without  milk.  Near  large  creameries  it  is  often 
possible  to  procure  skim  milk  in  large  quantities. 
If  it  can  be  had  at  a  price  not  to  exceed  15 
cents  per  hundred  pounds,  it  can  be  fed  with  profit. 
In  feeding  this  or  any  other  of  the  protein  foods 
recommended  in  connection  with  corn,  the  propor- 
tion could  be  slightly  altered  to  conform  more  to 
prices  prevailing  for  foodstuffs  of  either  character. 
In  the  Eastern  States,  where  corn  is  relatively  high, 
more  protein  foods  could  be  used  profitably. 

Alfalfa  Hay  for  Hogs. — In  the  West,  where  al- 
falfa hay  is  now  being  extensively  grown,  its  use 
as  a  source  of  protein  to  supplement  corn  has  sim- 
plified very  much  the  problem  of  economic  pork  pro- 
duction. To  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  the  worth 
of  alfalfa  hay  as  a  substitute  for  shorts  or  milk  in 
connection  with  corn  feeding,  and  to  further  empha- 
size what  has  been  said  concerning  the  value  of  corn 


FATTENING    PIGS    IN    WINTER.  285 

properly  supplemented  in  comparison  with  corn 
alone,  the  results  of  an  experiment  performed  at  the 
Nebraska  Experiment  Station  during  the  winter  of 
1902-03  are  given  below.  Twenty  pigs,  uniform  in 
quality,  were  divided  into  four  lots  of  five  each.  The 
following  table  shows  the  average  record  of  each 
pig  by  lot : 

S  n  M  £  £3  o          ^^       '^'o 

W)'5b  w>oj  a  a          a 

|£«  II          "3«  «  g®         g-0 

0)«H  fl  **  O  O  o 

^  rt  fl  a  ^  oj  ^T3  -O          g-O  gftbfi 

•*q  <3  <q  <!  fa  fa 

Lbs.        Lbs.        Lbs.          Lbs.     Lbs.     Lbs. 

Lot   I    127.6       206.2         78.6  .93     7.4 

Corn  meal o 587 

Lot  II 129.2       261.8       132.6  1.57     5.2 

Corn  meal 585.4 

Milk    solids     (in 

1,170       pounds 

skim-milk)    ;,       110.5 

695.9 

Lot   III    126         227.6     "101.6          1.2       5.8 

Corn  meal,  80% .•       473.9 

Shorts,    20% : 118.4       ... 

592  3 

Lot  IV  128.4      230         101.6          1.2       ...'..       5.8 

Corn  meal,  80% ,      , 474.8 

Alfalfa,    20% 118.7       ... 

593.5 

The  alfalfa  fed  in  this  experiment  was  in  the  na- 
ture of  chaff,  consisting  mostly  of  leaves  which  had 
fallen  from  the  hay  as  it  was  thrown  from  the  mow 
to  the  barn  floor  for  cattle.  For  the  purpose  of  mak- 
ing a  true  comparison  of  these  leaves  with  the  whole 
plant,  an  analysis  was  made.  The  leaves  were  found 
to  be  40  per  cent  richer  in  crude  protein  than  the 
entire  plant,  30  per  cent  higher  in  fat,  15  per  cent 
higher  in  mineral  matter,  and  50  per  cent  lower  in 
crude  fiber,  which  substance  is  largely  indigestible 


286         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

matter.  This  chaff  was  first  mixed  with  the  corn 
meal,  then  placed  in  the  feed  trough,  where  it  was 
made  into  a  thick  slop  with  water.  The  other  lots 
were  fed  in  the  same  way,  except  that  the  feed  for 
Lot  2  was  mixed  with  skim  milk  instead  of  water. 
Cost  of  Production. — With  the  alfalfa  hay  worth 
$7  per  ton,  the  leaves,  containing  40  per  cent  more 
protein,  would  be  worth  approximately  $10  per  ton. 
The  shorts  cost  $12.50  per  ton  delivered.  The  Dairy 
Department  charged  15  cents  per  hundred  for  the 
skim  milk  used.  Corn  was  delivered  to  the  barns  at 
30  cents  per  bushel.  Adding  the  usual  rate  of  six 
cents  per  hundred  for  grinding,  the  corn  meal  cost 
$12  per  ton.  At  these  prices,  each  hundred  pounds 
of  gain  in  the  several  lots  cost  as  follows : 

Lot  1.  Corn  alone - $4.48 

Lot  2.  Corn  and  skim  milk 3.97 

Lot  3.  Corn  and  shorts 3.53 

Lot  4.  Corn  and  alfalfa 3.40 

The  skim-milk  pigs  were  the  most  hearty  feeders 
and  made  the  heaviest  gains,  but  it  proved  a  more 
expensive  source  of  protein  at  the  prices  quoted. 

This  experiment  shows  that  at  these  prices,  and 
in  the  proportions  used  in  the  experiment,  skim 
milk  will  make  corn  bring  four  cents  more  per 
bushel ;  wheat  shorts,  eight  cents  more ;  and  alfalfa 
leaves,  nine  cents  more.  Assuming  that  only  5  per 
cent  of  the  252,520,173  bushels  of  corn  produced  in 
Nebraska  in  1902  was  fed  to  hogs  as  a  single  food, 
these  figures  would  go  to  show  that  over  $1,000,000 
more  wealth  would  have  been  added  to  the  State 
if  wheat  shorts  or  alfalfa  had  been  substituted  for 
one-fifth  of  the  corn  fed. 

An  examination  of  the  carcasses  of  one  corn  fed 
pig  and  one  corn  and  alfalfa  pig  showed  the  pres- 
ence of  more  lean  meat  where  alfalfa  was  fed.  The 
alfalfa  pig  also  had  better  developed  vital  organs, 


FATTENING  PIGS   IN    WINTER.  287 

more  blood  and  much  stronger  bone,  a  matter  re- 
quiring further  investigation  before  inferences  can 
safely  be  drawn,  although  entirely  consistent,  inas- 
much as  alfalfa  is  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter. 

In  the  experiment  described,  alfalfa  chaff  proved 
to  be  as  valuable,  pound  for  pound,  as  wheat  shorts. 
From  the  fact  that  the  leaves  furnish  more  nourish- 
ment than  the  stem,  we  should  naturally  expect  bet- 
ter results  from  chaff  than  from  the  entire  plant. 
While  not  all  farmers  have  alfalfa  chaff  in  abun- 
dance, cut  alfalfa  hay  may  be  had  in  almost  unlim- 
ited quantity  wherever  alfalfa  is  grown.  Machines 
are  put  on  the  market  at  moderate  prices  which  will 
cut  the  stems  in  lengths  suitable  for  feeding  hogs. 
Most  feeders  grind  the  corn  and  mix  it  with  this  cut 
alfalfa  hay.  For  most  economical  gains,  it  should 
be  used  in  about  the  proportion  of  four  pounds  of 
corn  meal  to  one  pound  of  alfalfa  hay,  and  fed  in 
the  form  of  a  thick  slop  by  using  water  or,  prefera- 
bly, milk.  This  mixture  should  be  fed  very  liberally 
three  times  per  day — in  fact,  all  that  the  pigs  will 
consume.  While  grinding  the  corn  and  cutting  the 
alfalfa  hay  will  perhaps  give  somewhat  larger 
gains,  it  is  doubtfu4  if  enough  better  results  are  ob- 
tained to  pay  for  the  labor  involved.  If  the  first 
crop  of  alfalfa  hay  is  used,  the  stems  might  as  well 
be  wasted,  as  they  are  extremely  difficult  for  pigs 
to  assimilate,  and  they  contain  little  nourishment. 

Last  Cutting  of  Alfalfa  Best.— Wherever  it  is 
possible,  a  farmer  who  grows  alfalfa  should  put 
away  the  last  cutting  for  pig  feeding.  Late  in  the 
season  there  is  usually  less  rainfall,  and  the  alfalfa 
grows  up  with  a  much  smaller  stem  and  correspond- 
ingly larger  leaf  surface.  With  early  cuttings  of 
alfalfa,  the  excessive  bulk  prevents  a  fattening  hog 
from  getting  all  the  protein  he  requires.  If  he  is 
forced  to  consume  a  proportion  of  hay  sufficiently 


288          PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

large  for  protein  needs — by  having  it  first  cut  in 
pieces  and  then  mixed  with  corn  meal — his  limited 
digestive  capacity  is  such  that,  although  he  is  full 
fed,  he  is  undernourished.  The  small  stem  and 
leafy  character  of  the  last  cutting  overcome  this 
difficulty.  It  can  be  fed  to  good  advantage  in  the 
proportion,  three  pounds  of  corn  to  one  of  alfalfa, 
though  with  the  rack  the  pigs  get  all  they  wish, 
which  will  amount  to  about  3  or  4  to  I  of  corn. 

Hay  Rack  for  Hogs. — Alfalfa  hay  is  very  com- 
monly scattered  upon  the  ground  for  hogs,  but  this 
practice  occasions  considerable  waste  of  valuable 
material,  especially  when  the  ground  is  soft  and 
muddy.  Better  results  may  be  secured  by  provid- 
ing suitable  racks.  The  illustration  below  shows  a 
form  of  rack  which  has  proved  to  be  a  success  in 
every  respect.  The  rack  was  designed  by  H.  W. 
Davis  Jr.,  a  former  student  of  the  writer,  for 
feeding  fourth-cutting  alfalfa  hay  to  hogs  which  are 
following  corn-fed  cattle.  Although  the  hogs  have 
all  the  corn  they  will  take,  there  is  seldom  a  time 
when  some  are  not  seen  eating  hay  from  this  self- 
feeding  rack,  and  they  no  doubt  consume  all  that 
is  needed. 


The  Davis  Self-Feeding  Hay  Rack  for  Pigs — F.  H.  Smith  Est.,  Ad- 
dison,  Michigan. 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

Mr.  Davis  in  forwarding  a  description  of  the  rack 
says:  "If  built  as  indicated  I  am  sure  that  it  will 
prove  a  success.  I  have  used  mine  for  two  seasons 
and,  although  it  is  small,  I  have  fed  several  tons 
through  it  with  very  little  waste  and  almost  no 
bother.  The  rack  may  be  of  any  length.  It  should 
not  be  more  than  3  or  3^2  feet  wide,  as  the  alfalfa 
will  lodge  in  the  center.  Do  not  have  the  fencing 
board  at  the  bottom  more  than  9  inches  from  the 
top  to  the  ground ;  if  higher,  the  hogs  will  get  their 
fore  feet  into  the  rack  in  trying  to  reach  over  it. 
The  2x4  at  the  bottom  of  the  hopper  should  be  six 
inches  from  outside  line  of  corner  posts  and  at  the 
bottom  14  inches  from  the  floor  of  the  rack,  or  18 
inches  from  the  ground." 

Clover  Hay  for  Hogs. — There  is  no  reason  why 
farmers  in  the  clover  belt  should  not  be  able  to  feed 
clover  in  the  same  way.  With  this  legume,  as  with 
alfalfa,  the  short,  fine  hay  is  superior  for  hogs.  If 
the  first  cutting  of  clover,  as  of  alfalfa,  is  fed,  much 
more  will  be  wasted  because  of  its  coarseness,  and 
coarser  hay  would  also  move  downward  with  less 
freedom  in  such  a  rack,  unless  the  sides  are  built 
straight  up  and  down.  In  sections  of  heavy  rain- 
fall some  sort  of  roof  protection  would  be  desirable. 
Inasmuch  as  hay  may  be  put  in  a  self-feeding  rack 
at  intervals  of  several  days,  the  labor-saving  item  is 
no  small  one.  With  such  a  rack,  hogs  may  have 
hay  before  them  at  all  times.  In  addition  to  the 
hay,  fattening  hogs  should  be  supplied  with  all  the 
corn  that  will  be  consumed  readily  twice  a  day. 

Most  Profitable  Weight  to  Market.— At  just  what 
weight  the  pig  can  be  most  profitably  marketed  is 
a  question  which  has  given  rise  to  considerable  dif- 
ference of  opinion.  Some  hold  that  the  hog  should 
be  fed  until  a  weight  of  350  to  400  pounds  has  been 
attained,  while  others  go  to  the  opposite  extreme? 


FATTENING   PIGS    IN    WINTER.  29! 

advocating  the  sale  of  hogs  before  200  pounds  have 
been  reached.  In  formulating  any  conclusions  con- 
cerning the  best  time  to  market,  there  are  two 
things  which  should  be  given  consideration:  (i) 
market  quotations  on  pigs  of  various  weights;  (2) 
the  economy  of  gains  at  different  stages  of  growth. 
Since  vegetable  oils  have  come  into  use  as  lard  sub- 
stitutes, resulting  in  lower  prices  for  the  latter 
commodity  and  less  prestige  for  the  heavy  hog,  the 
well-finished  200  to  25o-pound  hog  is  now  quite  as 
much  in  favor  and  brings  about  as  much  per  pound 
as  the  350  to  4OO-pound  hog.  From  the  viewpoint 
of  gains  for  food  consumed,  the  lighter  hog  has  a 
distinct  advantage,  as  shown  by  the  following  table, 
compiled  by  Henry,  of  Wisconsin,  and  published  in 
"Feeds  and  Feeding." 

DATA  RELATIVE  TO  FEED,  WEIGHT  AND  GAIN  OF  PIGS 
— MANY  AMERICAN  STATIONS. 


I       *    :    fe        fe*S      •«          «i* 
Weight  of  pigs        g       <**>   |       |~      «^      d* 
in  pounds.  >+>     ps     2r.     3-3       ^3      *-§ 


|| 

•gft 

§» 
E 

1* 

"3*2 
S« 

H 

I1 

I1 

I 
< 

:  in 

K& 

r 

I1 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

I 

,bs. 

Lbs. 

15 

to 

50 

38 

9 

41 

174 

2.23 

5.95 

.76 

293 

50 

to 

100 

78 

13 

100 

417 

3.35 

4.32 

.83 

400 

100 

to 

150.  

128 

13 

119 

495 

4.79 

3.75 

1 

.10 

437 

150 

to 

200 

174 

11 

107 

489 

5.91 

3.43 

1 

.24 

482 

200' 

to 

250 

226 

12 

72 

300 

6.57 

2.91 

1 

.33 

498 

250 

to 

300 

271 

8 

46 

223 

7.40 

2.74 

1 

.46 

511 

300 

to 

350.. 

.  320 

3 

19 

105 

7.50 

2.35 

1 

.40 

535 

Referring  to  the  last  column  of  the  above  table, 
it  will  be  seen  that  as  the  pig  grows  larger,  more 
food  is  required  for  a  given  gain.  This  seems  en- 
tirely reasonable  in  view  of  the  fact,  that  the  larger 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

the  hog,  the  more  food  is  required  for  maintenance ; 
by  which  is  meant  more  food  to  keep  the  body 
warm,  force  the  blood  to  circulate,  and  maintain 
other  functional  activities  commensurate  with 
larger  size,  all  of  which  requirements  are  made 
at  the  expense  of  actual  increase  in  weight  from 
food  consumed.  The  smaller  the  pig  the  less  food 
is  required  for  a  given  gain.  Yet  it  is  not  profitable 
to  kill  an  animal  too  young,  because  of  the  initial 
£ost  at  birth.  Everything  considered,  it  would  seem 
.that  the  pig  should  be  marketed  at  a  weight  some- 
where between  200  and  250  pounds  for  maximum 
profits. 

The  above  table  is  of  further  interest  in  that  it 
shows  how  large  a  daily  ration  pigs  at  different 
weights  should  consume,  and  the  gain  per  day 
which  might  reasonably  be  expected  under  average 
conditions.  Pigs  thin  in  flesh  would,  of  course,  con- 
sume larger  amounts  than  stated  and  would  gain 
more  accordingly. 


Pens  for  Winter  Pig-feeding  Tests,  Nebraska  Experiment  Station. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

CORN  SUBSTITUTES  FOR  SWINE. 

Throughout  the  corn  belt  of  the  United  States, 
corn  is  almost  entirely  depended  upon  for  pig  feed- 
ing. While  no  feed  has  yet  been  found  which  has 
proved  superior  to  corn  properly  fed,  yet  there  are 
occasional  years  when  certain  other  grains  are  cheap 
enough  to  be  serviceable  for  the  production  of  pork. 
On  most  farms,  too,  it  is  advisable  to  grow  certain 
other  grains  in  the  crop  rotation.  In  the  semiarid 
districts  small  grains  are  better  able  to  stand  the 
dry  weather  than  corn,  and  such  grains  are  there- 
fore oftentimes  cheaper  for  feeding  purposes. 

Barley,  which  is  grown  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  Northern  latitudes  and  the  extreme  West,  is  of 
two  kinds,  the  bald  varieties  and  the  common.  The 
latter  has  a  hull  and  is  much  less  valuable  for  pig 
feeding.  Though  classed  as  a  starchy  food,  barley 
contains  a  higher  percentage  of  protein  than  corn, 
and  it  is  probably  this  fact  which  shows  barley  to  be 
slightly  superior  to  corn  when  each  is  fed  alone.  At 
those  stations  where  each  was  supplemented  by  shorts 
and  skim  milk,  the  corn  proved  to  be  better  than 
barley. 

Millet  seed,  which  yielded  at  the  rate  of  30  bush- 
els to  the  acre  at  the  South  Dakota  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, was  fed  to  pigs  in  comparison  with  wheat  and 
with  barley.  In  this  test  one  pound  of  wheat  proved 
equivalent  to  i.oi  pounds  barley  and  to  1.22  pounds 
millet  seed.  Millet  weighs  56  pounds  to  the  bushel 
and  barley  48.  Each  yielded  in  pork  the  same  price 
per  bushel 


2Q4  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

Wheat  can  be  grown  in  a  drier  climate  than  corn, 
and  in  such  localities  is  frequently  fed.  In 
feeding  wheat  to  swine  it  should  be  first  ground  or 
soaked,  for  the  kernels  are  so  small  and  hard  that 
many  will  pass  through  the  alimentary  tract  undi- 
gested if  fed  dry  and  unground.  At  the  Nebraska 
Station  it  was  found  that  there  was  a  saving  of  10 
per  cent  of  whole  dry  wheat  by  grinding  it,  and  a 
saving  of  8  per  cent  by  soaking  it  from  18  to  24 
hours.  Soaking  was  most  profitable  because  of  the 
greater  expense  of  grinding.  In  the  same  experiment 
it  was  found  that  ground  wheat  gave  9  per  cent  larger 
gains  than  ground  corn.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact 
that  wheat,  with  its  somewhat  higher  protein  con- 
tent, is  more  nearly  balanced  than  corn  alone.  A 
Utah  test  showed  an  advantage  for  wheat  until  pea- 
meal  was  added  to  corn  to  furnish  more  protein, 
when  the  latter  proved  just  as  valuable.  After  re- 
viewing a  large  number  of  experiments  with  wheat 
feeding,  it  seems  safe  to  assert  that  wheat  is  about 
3  per  cent  ahead  of  corn,  pound  for  pound,  when 
each  is  fed  separately;  but  properly  supplemented, 
corn  is  just  as  good. 

Wheat  screenings  can  often  be  had  at  a  price 
below  _that  of  corn,  and  if  of  good  quality,  consist- 
ing of  cracked  and  shrunken  kernels  with  no  dirt, 
they  are  very  nearly  equal  to  corn.  Screenings 
should  also  be  soaked  or  ground. 

Frosted  wheat  is  entirely  satisfactory  for  pigs. 
Tests  at  the  Central  Experiment  Farm  of  Canada 
show  frosted  wheat  very  nearly  equal  to  the  un- 
frosted. 

Rye  is  not  as  well  relished  by  pigs  as  is  wheat. 
Since  the  two  grains  are  similar  in  composition, 
the  greater  palatability  of  wheat  no  doubt  explains 
why  better  gains  are  made  on  wheat  than  on  rye.  From 
comparative  tests  made,  it  seems  conservative  to  say 


CORN   SUBSTITUTES  FOR  PIGS.  2QS 

that  wheat  has  a  feeding  value  about  10  per  cent 
greater  than  rye.  Like  wheat,  rye  should  either  be 
ground  or  soaked  when  fed. 

Kafir  Corn. — At  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station, 
where  Kafir  corn  has  been  grown  for  a  series  of 
years,  it  has  been  found  to  average  55  bushels  per 
acre — 25  per  cent  more  than  common  Indian  corn. 
Farther  west  than  Manhattan,  in  dry  sections,  the 
difference  would  be  still  greater.  In  pig  feeding 
tests  at  Kansas,  when  corn  meal  was  compared 
with  Kafir  corn  meal,  it  was  found  that  one  pound 
of  corn  was  equivalent  to  1.17  pounds  of  Kafir  corn. 
When  each  was  fed  with  33  per  cent  soy  bean  meal, 
a  rich  protein  food,  one  pound  of  corn  and  soy  bean 
meal  was  equivalent  to  1.07  pounds  of  Kafir  corn 
and  soy  bean  meal,  but  when  soy  bean  meal  was 
made  20  per  cent  of  the  ration,  one  pound  of  Kafir 
corn  meal  was  equal  to  1.06  pounds  of  cornmeal. 
Kafir  corn,  like  common  corn,  is  deficient  in  protein, 
and  it  has  also  a  constipating  effect,  both  of  which 
faults  soy  bean  meal  or  oil  meal  will  correct.  On 
account  of  the  small  size  and  hardness  of  the  seeds, 
it  is  advisable  to  grind  or  thoroughly  soak  Kafir  corn 
before  feeding. 

Cane,  or  sorghum,  seed  is  very  similar  to  Kafir 
corn  in  composition  and  it  should  be  fed  in  the  same 
way.  The  Kansas  experiments  show  cane  seed  to  be 
somewhat  inferior  to  Kafir  corn  for  pig  feeding. 

Oats. — For  feeding  market  hogs,  oats  are  ordi- 
narily too  expensive  in  comparison  with  corn,  and 
for  fattening  hogs  they  contain  altogether  too  much 
hull,  which  is  largely  indigestible  matter.  Oats  are 
fairly  good  for  brood  sows,  provided  they  can  be 
had  at  a  price  per  hundred  no  greater  than  corn.  For 
young  pigs  they  are  not  satisfactory,  owing  to  their 
bulk,  unless  fed  in  a  very  limited  quantity. 

Emmer,  commonly  called  Speltz,  has  been  used 


296         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

in  pig- feeding  tests  at  the  North  Platte  (Nebraska) 
Substation,  where  it  was  found  to  have  a  food  value 
considerably  below  corn  and  below  barley.  It  con- 
tains rather  too  much  hull  for  fattening  pigs. 

Potatoes  contain  from  75  to  80  per  cent  water 
and  the  remainder  is  largely  starch.  Considering  the 
starch  content,  potatoes  would  properly  be  consid- 
ered a  corn  substitute.  Owing  to  their  large  water 
content,  they  are  in  reality  too  bulky  for  pigs,  unless 
the  water  is  first  driven  out  by  cooking.  From  ex- 
periments conducted  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station,  it  would  seem  that  one  pound  of  corn  is 
equivalent  to  about  4^  pounds  of  uncooked  pota- 
toes. This  agrees  closely  with  experiments  made 
in  Denmark.  It  would  not  be  profitable,  therefore, 
to  feed  potatoes  if  they  are  more  than  one-fourth 
the  price  of  corn  per  bushel. 

Jerusalem  artichokes,  like  potatoes,  grow  under- 
ground as  tubers,  and  are  sometimes  planted  for  pigs. 
At  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  they  were  found 
to  be  the  equivalent  of  potatoes.  Not  having  more 
than  one-fourth  the  food  value  of  corn,  they  are  hardly 
competitors  of  this  cereal  for  economic  pork  produc- 
tion, though  they  are  valuable  for  brood  sows  and 
growing  pigs. 

Sugar  beets  at  the  Colorado  Experiment  Station 
proved  little  more  than  a  maintenance  ration  when  fed 
alone.  With  grain  they  were  worth  $1.50  per  ton.  It 
was  therefore  concluded  that  any  succulence  needed 
for  growing  pigs  could  be  furnished  more  cheaply 
in  grass.  Sugar  beet  pulp  gave  a  gain  equivalent  to 
that  from  sugar  beets,  and,  as  indicated  by  the  test, 
would  seem  to  be  worth  as  much  per  ton.  Sugar  beet 
pulp,  if  made  not  more  than  one-fourth  the  grain  ra- 
tion by  weight  for  pigs,  should  give  better  results 
than  corn  alone. 

Corn  silage,  like  roots,  is  very  watery  and  there- 


CORN   SUBSTITUTES   FOR  PIGS. 

fore  somewhat  too  bulky  for  fattening  pigs  unless  fed 
in  very  small  quantity — not  more  than  one-fourth  the 
ration.  For  brood  sows  a  larger  proportion  could  be 
fed.  Corn  silage  is  most  satisfactory  for  sows  giving 
milk,  as  its  succulence  seems  to  have  the  effect  of 
stimulating  the  flow,  which  is  especially  desirable  when 
a  large  litter  is  being  raised.  A  brood  sow  could  easily 
consume  equal  parts  by  weight  of  silage  and  grain, 
but  the  grain  part  in  that  case  would  necessarily  be 
made  up  of  sufficient  protein  food  to  supply  the  needs 
of  the  sow.  Moreover,  this  protein  food  should  be 
of  a  concentrated  nature,  like  shorts  or  oil  meal, 
rather  than  clover  or  alfalfa,  since  the  silage  pro- 
vides all  the  bulk  that  can  be  utilized.  Corn  silage 
is  even  more  deficient  in  protein  than  corn. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

PROTEIN  CONCENTRATES  AND  THE  PREP- 
ARATION OF  FOODS  FOR  SWINE. 

Feeds  Supplementary  to  Corn  for  Pigs. — In  the 

preceding  chapters  on  pig  feeding,  the  use  of  corn 
has  been  described  in  more  or  less  detail.  As  already 
stated,  this  is  done  because  corn  is  almost  entirely  de- 
pended upon  as  the  basic  part  of  the  ration,  owing  to 
its  relative  cheapness.  Should  there  be  occasion  for 
feeding  any  of  the  so-called  corn  substitutes,  the 
method  of  supplementing  them  would  be  similar  to 
the  methods  described  for  corn,  the  only  difference 
being  the  amount,  or  proportion,  of  supplementary  food 
used.  None  of  these  corn  substitutes  will  require  a 
larger  proportion  of  protein  foods  than  that  recom- 
mended for  corn ;  in  fact,  most  of  them  require  less, 
because  they  contain  a  higher  percentage  of  protein. 
Wheat  and  rye,  as  noted  by  the  chart  on  page  27, 
have  nutritive  ratios  very  near  to  requirements  for 
fattening  mature  hogs.  In  the  use  of  such  foods  for 
pig  feeding,  not  more  than  one-half  the  proportion 
of  protein  or  supplementary  foods  recommended  for 
use  with  corn  is  needed.  For  example,  where  a 
ration  of  88  per  cent  corn  and  12  per  cent  oil  meal 
is  suggested,  94  per  cent  wheat  or  rye  and  6  per  cent 
oil  meal  would  furnish  approximately  the  same 
nutrients.  Barley  would  need  a  little  more  oil  meal 
than  wheat,  because  it  contains  less  protein.  Kafir 
corn  should  be  supplemented  in  the  same  manner  as 
corn. 

As  previously  stated,  the  choice  of  protein  foods 
to  supplement  any  of  these  starchy  foods  depends 
entirely  upon  their  relative  efficiency  at  the  current 

*98 


PROTEIN  CONCENTRATES  FOR  PIGS. 

market  price.  The  efficiency  of  each  is  largely  a 
question  of  protein  content.  As  with  starchy  foods, 
palatability  is  a  factor  in  measuring  the  value  of  a 
protein  food,  but  any  slight  difference  in  the  palata- 
bility of  such  concentrated  foods  is  less  noticeable 
in  the  ration  because  of  the  small  proportion  used. 
Since  it  is  the  practice  to  base  the  value  of  the 
so-called  protein  foods  very  largely  upon  the  per- 
centage of  digestible  protein  contained,  figuring 
upon  this  basis,  we  shall  assume  clover  to  be  worth 
$5.00  per  ton,  then  alfalfa  is  worth  $8.00,  cowpea 
hay  $8.00,  wheat  shorts  $9.00,  wheat  bran  $9.00, 
Canadian  peas  $12.50,  cowpeas  $13.60,  skim  milk 
$2.10,  soy  beans  $21.70,  oil  meal  (old  process)  $21.50, 
gluten  meal  $19.00,  tankage  $22.00,  dried  blood 
$38.00.  In  computing  the  value  of  tankage  per 
ton  it  is  assumed  that  the  coefficient  of  digestibility 
of  the  protein  is  the  same  as  in  dried  blood. 

But  to  get  a  more  nearly  correct  estimate  of  the 
relative  worth  of  these  foods,  some  value  must  be 
given  to  the  carbohydrates  and  fats  found  in  each. 
This  value  should  not  be  more  than  the  actual  cost 
of  carbohydrates  as  found  in  corn,  their  cheapest 
source.  Assuming  fats  to  be  2.25  times  as  valuable 
as  carbohydrates  (their  heat  ratio),  and  placing 
upon  each  pound  of  digestible  carbohydrates  in  ex- 
cess of  what  is  contained  in  clover  a  valuation  of  one- 
half  cent,  the  relative  value  per  ton  of  each  food- 
stuff would  then  be,  clover  $5.00,  alfalfa  $8.00,  cow- 
pea  hay  $8.00,  bran  $9.00,  shorts  $10.00,  Canadian 
peas  $13.80,  cowpeas  $15.30,  skim  milk  $2.10,  soy 
beans  $23.30,  gluten  meal  $23.00,  oil  meal  $22.50, 
tankage  $23.00,  dried  blood  $38.00. 

However,  the  work  of  masticating  the  unground 
peas  and  beans,  and  the  still  greater  energy  expended 
in  grinding  the  hay,  would  place  these  foodstuffs 
somewhat  below  the  prices  quoted.  Just  what  esti- 


3<DO  PROFITABLE  STOCK   FEEDING. 

mate  should  be  made  for  mechanical  condition  it  is 
difficult  to  say.  If  it  pays  to  grind  grains  at  a  cost 
of  5  cts.  per  hundred,  and  to  reduce  hay  to  the  same 
condition  at  a  cost  of  15  cts.  per  hundred,  then  it 
would  be  necessary  to  add  approximately  $1.00 
per  ton  to  the  value  of  bran  (a  coarse  food),  Ca- 
nadian peas,  cowpeas  and  soy  beans,  and  $3.00 
per  ton  to  the  value  of  the  more  concentrated 
shorts,  oil  meal,  gluten  meal,  tankage  and  dried 
blood.  The  value  of  skim  milk  would  also  be  in- 
creased at  least  70  cts.  per  ton.  The  work  of  Zuntz 
in  Germany  and  of  Armsby  in  America  indicates 
that  from  40  to  50  per  cent  more  energy  is  expended 
in  masticating  coarse  fodders  than  grains,  and  a  dif- 
ference of  $3.00  per  ton  for  texture,  or  condition, 
would  seem  to  be  conservative.  In  the  writer's  opin- 
ion these  additions  would  more  nearly  represent  the 
true  comparative  values  of  the  several  foodstuffs  for 
supplementing  corn,  at  least  for  such  animals  as  pigs, 
which  are  not  equipped  to  utilize  bulky  foods  in 
quantity.  Then  with  this  second  revision  of  compara- 
tive values,  taking  into  consideration,  as  we  have,  tex- 
ture of  foodstuffs,  but  not  palatability,  yet  assuming 
all  to  be  of  good  quality,  the  final  estimate,  with 
clover  at  $5.00  a  ton,  would  make  alfalfa  worth 
$8.00,  cowpea  hay  $8.00,  bran  $11.00,  shorts  $13.00, 
Canadian  peas  $14.80,  cowpeas  $16.30,  skim  milk 
$2.80,  soy  beans  $25.30,  gluten  meal  $26.00,  oil 
meal  $25.50,  tankage  $26.00  and  dried  blood  $41.00. 
Zuntz,  the  German  investigator,  found  that  one- 
sixth  of  the  total  nutrients  in  linseed  meal  was  used 
by  the  horse  in  the  work  of  mastication  and  one-half 
of  those  in  clover  hay.  This  would  mean  a  higher 
value  for  the  concentrates  than  given.  Owing  to 
the  fact  that  foodstuffs  under  different  conditions 
vary  slightly  in  composition  and  digestibility,  it 
would  be  folly  to  use  the  above  scale  with  the  idea 


PROTEIN  CONCENTRATES  FOR  PIGS.  3OI 

that  it  is  mathematically  correct.  It  is  simply 
introduced  as  a  sort  of  guide  for  the  feeder  in  his 
effort  to  secure  the  foodstuff  most  useful  at  the 
market  price.  When  cost  is  being  considered, 
the  purchaser  must  figure  on  relative  prices  de- 
livered at  the  farm.  In  case  of  a  long  haul  from 
station  to  farm,  the  more  concentrated  foodstuffs 
would  have  the  advantage.  In  supplying  any  of 
these  with  corn  to  fattening  hogs,  figuring  upon  a 
basis  of  digestible  protein  content,  there  would  be 
required  40  per  cent  of  the  ration  clover,  or  28  per 
cent  alfalfa,  28  per  cent  cowpea  hay,  25  per  cent 
shorts,  25  per  cent  bran,  20  per  cent  Canadian  peas, 
18  per  cent  cowpeas,  10  per  cent  oil  meal,  10  per  cent 
gluten  meal,  10  per  cent  soy  bean  meal,  10  per  cent 
tankage,  or  6  per  cent  dried  blood.  With  the  per- 
centage of  each  as  stated,  the  remainder  being  corn, 
we  have  what  would  be  under  average  Western  con- 
ditions a  good  fattening  ration  for  hogs,  though 
a  little  too  much  bulk  in  the  case  of  clover,  al- 
falfa and  cowpea  hay.  These  supplementary  foods 
have  all  been  described  in  the  chapters  on  cattle  feed- 
ing, except  tankage  and  dried  blood,  both  of  which 
are  more  relished  by  swine  than  by  cattle  or  sheep, 
and  are  more  successfully  used  with  swine. 

Tankage  is  described  in  Bulletin  65,  issued  by 
the  Iowa  Experiment  Station,  as  follows:  "Digester 
tankage  is  made  from  meat  scraps,  fat  trimmings  and 
scrap  bones.  These  are  taken  up  as  fast  as  taken  from 
the  animals  and  put  into  a  large  steel  tank  and 
cooked  under  a  live  steam  pressure  of  40 
pounds  to  the  square  inch,  which  cooks  out 
the  tallow.  After  the  steam  is  turned  off,  it 
is  allowed  to  settle,  when  the  grease  rises  to  the 
top  and  is  drawn  off.  After  the  grease  is  drawn  off 
the  tankage  is  kept  agitated  and  by  evaporation  the 
water  is  extracted  until  the  tankage  contains  about  8 


3O2          PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

per  cent  moisture.  It  is  then  taken  out  of  the  tank, 
allowed  to  cool,  is  ground  and  stored  ready  for  ship- 
ment." 

Dried  blood  is  simply  the  blood  from  slaughtered 
animals  dried  to  a  powder.  In  the  process  of  drying, 
sufficient  heat  is  applied  to  kill  any  disease  germs  which 
may  be  present  in  the  blood.  Both  tankage  and  dried 
blood  must  be  kept  dry.  If  moistened  by  rain,  putre- 
faction begins,  and  the  feed  gives  off  an  offensive 
odor,  making  it  not  only  disagreeable  to  handle  but 
unpalatable  to  the  animals.  Owing  to  the  concen- 
tration of  these  foods,  they  must  be  used  with  great 
care.  If  too  much  is  fed,  it  is  not  only  expensive, 
but  harmful  to  the  animals.  If  not  carefully  mixed 
with  grain,  some  pigs  may  get  more  than  is  needed 
and  some  not  enough.  Neither  tankage  nor  dried 
blood  should  be  put  to  soak  several  hours  before 
feeding. 

The  value  of  these  foods  depends  largely  upon  their 
quality.  Generally  speaking,  though  not  always,  the 
packing  houses  are  careful  to  put  on  sale  for  feeding 
purposes  only  that  which  is  suitable.  The  inferior 
material  is  usually  sold  for  fertilizing  purposes.  At 
the  Indiana  Experiment  Station  corn  alone  was  com- 
pared with  a  mixture  of  84  per  cent  corn  and  16  per 
cent  tankage  and  another  mixture  of  91  per  cent  corn 
and  9  per  cent  tankage.  When  16  per  cent  tankage 
was  fed,  39  per  cent  less  feed  was  required  for  a 
pound  of  gain  than  with  corn  alone,  and  when  9  per 
cent  tankage  was  fed,  35  per  cent  less  feed  was  re- 
quired. With  corn  worth  $20.00  per  ton  and  tankage 
worth  $30.00,  one  hundred  pounds  of  gain  on  corn 
alone  cost  $5.20;  on  corn  and  16  per  cent  tankage, 
$4.00 ;  and  on  corn  and  9  per  cent  tankage,  $3.80.  At 
the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  30  per  cent  less  feed 
was  required  with  corn  and  16  per  cent  tankage 
than  with  corn  alone.  With  corn  worth  $22.00  per 


PROTEIN  CONCENTRATES  FOR  PIGS.  303 

ton  and  tankage  $32.00  per  ton,  the  cost  of  produ- 
cing gains  was  12  per  cent  less  than  on  corn  alone. 
From  the  results  of  these  and  other  experiments, 
it  seems  evident  that  at  ordinary  Western  prices 
tankage  may  be  most  profitably  fed  when  it  consti- 
tutes not  over  10  per  cent  of  the  ration,  the  remain- 
der being  corn. 

Mangel-wurzels  and  Rutabagas  are  much  richer 
in  protein  than  sugar  beets,  and  may  be  considered  as 
protein  foods.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  they  contain 
90  per  cent  water,  they  are  too  bulky  for  fattening 
hogs.  For  brood  sows  suckling  pigs  they  are  excel- 
lent, stimulating,  as  do  sugar  beets,  a  good  flow  of  milk 
for  the  nourishment  of  the  pigs.  While  corn  silage 
serves  this  purpose  at  a  much  less  expense,  when  it  is 
fed,  protein  must  be  supplied  from  other  sources. 
Where  land  is  high-priced  and  labor  not  too  costly, 
roots  are  entirely  practical,  for  breeding  stock  at 
least. 

Condimental  stock  foods  are  said  to  contain  prop- 
erties which  make  them  useful  adjuncts  to  grain  for 
swine  feeding.  As  mentioned  in  the  chapters  on  the 
dairy  cow,  emphasis  is  made  of  the  fact  that  they 
have  a  medicinal  effect  which  stimulates  the  flow  of 
digestive  fluids,  rendering  more  food  digestible.  At 
the  Indiana  Experiment  Station  2^2  per  cent  of  a 
mixed  grain  ration  for  pigs  was  American  Stock 
Food.  The  cost  of  producing  gains  on  this  ration 
was  15  per  cent  greater  than  the  same  ration  with- 
out stock  food.  At  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station 
it  was  found  that  corn  alone  produced  gains  at  a 
cost  of  2  per  cent  more  than  corn  and  Standard 
Stock  Food,  and  12  per  cent  more  than  corn  and 
tankage.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  a  ration  of 
corn  alone,  a  very  unbalanced  one,  is  slightly  im- 
proved by  the  addition  of  a  little  stock  food;  but  no 
supplemental  food  is  more  costly  to  buy.  The 


304  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

prices  paid  for  condimental  stock  foods  are  out  of  all 
proportion  to  any  food  value  they  may  possess  for 
swine  as  well  as  other  classes  of  stock. 

Grinding  Grain  for  Swine. — From  experiments 
made  with  pigs  in  which  ground  and  unground  corn 
were  compared,  it  would  seem  that  grinding  does 
not  pay  under  all  conditions.  The  results  of  experi- 
ments made  at  the  Kentucky,  Missouri  and  Ohio 
Experiment  Stations  show  on  an  average  a  saving 
of  7  per  cent  of  the  corn  by  grinding.  The  results 
of  four  experiments  at  the  Wisconsin  Station  show 
a  saving  of  8  per  cent  by  grinding.  Even  with  this 
most  favorable  showing  for  grinding  corn,  it  would 
not  pay  in  the  West,  where  corn  is  relatively  low  in 
price.  A  saving  of  8  per  cent  by  grinding  would 
be  8  pounds  out  of  100.  Eight  pounds  of  corn  is 
not  ordinarily  worth  in  the  West  the  price  charged 
for  grinding,  which  is  from  6  to  8  cents  per  hun- 
dred, to  say  nothing  of  the  cost  of  labor  in  hauling 
the  corn  to  the  mill  and  handling  it.  Wherever  the 
pig  is  able  to  grind  grain  for  himself,  it  is  un- 
doubtedly an  extravagance  to  use  artificial  power. 
The  mechanism  of  the  animal  is  much  more  perfect 
than  that  of  the  machine.  It  has  been  determined 
that  the  horse  can  convert  into  work  34  per  cent  of 
the  available  energy  of  food,  besides  that  needed 
for  body  maintenance.  It  requires  a  very  efficient 
steam  engine  to  convert  into  work  a  per  cent  one- 
third  as  great.  Moreover,  the  animal  is  its  own  engi- 
neer, working  without  pay,  and  having  an  abundance 
of  time  at  his  disposal.  With  corn  high  in  price  or 
with  cheap  power,  grinding  may  pay,  or  if  it  is 
desirable  to  mix  a  concentrated  food  like  tankage 
with  corn,  grinding  will  be  an  advantage  because 
it  makes  a  better  medium  for  diluting  the  tank- 
age. In  feeding  small,  hard  grains  like  wheat,  rye. 


PROTEIN  CONCENTRATES  FOR  PIGS.  305 

etc.,  grinding  is  practicable  unless  soaking  can  be 
done  conveniently. 

Wet  versus  Dry  Meal. — Meal  is  better  fed 
moistened  than  dry,  because  more  can  be  con- 
sumed. The  average  of  tests  made  at  the  Min- 
nesota, Wisconsin,  Oregon  and  Missouri  Experi- 
ment Stations  shows  that  7  per  cent  larger  gains 
were  made  by  feeding  meal  wet  than  by  feeding  it 
dry.  Unlike  cattle  and  sheep,  hogs  have  a  rela- 
tively large  intestinal  capacity,  which  gives  them 
a  more  active  starch  digestion  in  the  intestine,  mak- 
ing the  mixture  of  saliva  in  the  mouth  less  im- 
portant with  them  than  with  these  other  animals. 
Wet  feed  is  not  in  favor  for  cattle  and  sheep. 

Soaking  Grain  for  Pigs. — In  a  winter  experiment 
conducted  by  the  writer,  it  was  found  that  9^2 
per  cent  of  whole  wheat  was  saved  by  first  soaking 
it  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  hours.  During 
freezing  weather  warm  water  was  used.  Soak- 
ing the  wheat  gave  very  nearly  as  large  gains  from 
the  same  consumption  of  food  as  grinding  it,  and 
proved  to  be  more  economical  because  of  the  less 
expense  incurred,  a  point  more  recently  confirmed 
by  the  Missouri  Station.  All  grains  are  undoubt- 
edly made  more  easily  digested  by  first  being 
soaked.  During  hot  summer  weather  it  is  some- 
times best  not  to  soak  longer  than  twelve  hours  on 
account  of  souring,  though  pigs  do  not  object  to 
some  acidity. 

Cooking  Feed  for  Swine. — The  average  results 
from  twenty  separate  tests  made  at  eight  experi- 
ment stations  show  an  actual  loss  of  9  per  cent 
of  the  food  by  cooking.  Were  the  labor  involved 
to  be  considered,  the  loss  would  be  considerably 
more  than  indicated.  The  diminished  feeding  value 
of  food  when  cooked  may  be  partially  explained 
by  the  fact  that  the  protein  coagulated  by  heat 


306         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

is  made  less  digestible,  just  as  the  albumen  of  the 
hard  boiled  egg  is  less  digestible  than  that  of  the 
soft  boiled  egg.  In  the  experiments  made  with 
cooked  feed  it  was  furthermore  found  that  less  was 
consumed.  Potatoes,  which  contain  but  little  pro- 
tein, are  undoubtedly  improved  by  being  cooked, 
because  cooking  breaks  up  the  tough  starch  cells. 
Warming  feed  in  cold  weather  is  no  doubt  a  good 
practice. 

Charcoal  and  Ashes  for  Pigs. — It  is  always  ad- 
visable to  provide  pigs  with  a  box  containing 
charcoal  and  ashes,  in  which  has  been  mixed  a  lit- 
tle slaked  lime  and  salt.  This  is  especially  im- 
portant in  winter  when  the  ground  is  frozen.  It  is 
even  more  important  when  the  ration  consists  large- 
ly of  corn,  which,  as  has  been  said,  is  deficient  in 
mineral  ingredients. 

Disinfectants.— It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  occa- 
sionally sprinkle  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid, 
zenoleum,  chloro-naptholeum,  or  some  other  disin- 
fectant about  the  pens,  on  the  bedding,  etc.  This 
will  lessen  the  risk  from  germ  disease. 

Dipping  for  Lice. — Where  pigs  are  kept  in  con- 
siderable numbers  it  will  pay  the  farmer  to  have  a 
dipping  plant.  With  such  an  equipment  the  herd 
may  be  run  through  a  disinfecting  solution  at  inter- 
vals to  kill  lice,  at  the  same  time  lessening  the  risk 
from  contagious  diseases.  Vermin,  unless  kept  in 
check,  give  no  little  trouble,  and  prevent  the  mak- 
ing of  the  largest  possible  gains.  Spraying  with  a 
pump  may  be  done,  but  the  work  is  much  more 
thorougfi  and  satisfactory  when  the  dipping  tank 
is  used.  Such  a  tank  can  be  purchased  for  a  mod- 
erate sum  and  in  a  very  short  time  will  pay  for 
itself. 

Cleanliness  in  the  Pens. — Pig-pens  are  too  often 
neglected  because  of  the  prevailing  notion  that  pigs 


PROTEIN  CONCENTRATES  FOR  PIGS. 

do  just  as  well  surrounded  with  a  certain  amount 
of  filth,  and  to  many  people  the  pig  is  a  disagree- 
able object  because  of  such  conditions.  This  is  a 
mistaken  notion.  The  .farmer  will  be  abundantly 
paid  for  his  trouble  by  keeping  his  pens  clean  and 
well  bedded,  for  pigs  with  such  care  will  not  only 
grow  faster  and  be  less  subject  to  disease,  but  will 
be  far  more  desirable  tenants  on  the  farm. 

Fresh  Water. — This  should  be  supplied  in 
troughs,  or,  better  still,  in  some  of  the  approved 
drinking  fountains.  If  the  water  can  be  warmed 
during  cold  weather,  feed  will  be  saved,  as  the  pig, 
not  having  the  natural  protection  other  farm  ani- 
mals have,  is  easily  chilled  by  cold  water. 

Exercise. — Experiments  have  been  conducted 
which  show  that  pigs  running  at  will  in  lots  or  fields 
do  better  than  those  kept  closely  confined.  All 
hogs  do  better  if  given  some  exercise,  though  less  is 
needed  with  mature  hogs  than  with  pigs,  which  are 
developing  bone  and  muscle.  As  previously  men- 
tioned, a  lack  of  exercise  is  one  cause  of  the  disease 
called  "thumps"  in  young  pigs. 


PART  VI 

FARM  POULTRY 

By  Mary  L.  Smith.  , 
CHAPTER  XXX. 
TYPES  OF  FOWLS. 

Chickens  the  Most  Practical  Branch  of  Poultry 
Husbandry  for  the  Farm. — No  farm  equipment  is 
complete  without  poultry  of  some  kind,  not  only  be- 
cause they  are  economical  producers,  but  also  be- 
cause they  consume  refuse  from  the  kitchen  and 
granaries  which  even  pigs  cannot  utilize.  By  them 
insects  of  various  kinds  are  converted  into  delicious 
meat  and  eggs  for  the  farmer's  table  or  for  the  mar- 
ket, returning  their  equivalent  in  money. 

Since  this  volume  fe  for  the  farmer,  the  subject 
of  poultry  raising  will  be  presented  entirely  from 
the  farmer's  point  of  view.  The  raising  of  ducks 
for  the  market,  chickens  known  as  broilers,  squabs, 
etc.,  are,  for  the  most  part,  branches  of  poultry 
farming  rather  than  of  general  farming,  and  are 
not  adaptable  to  all  farms  in  every  locality. 
But  eggs,  besides  being  a  most  convenient  source 
of  protein  food  and  the  best  meat  substitute  at  the 
farmer's  disposal,  are  a  condensed  product  that  can 
be  produced  and  transported  with  profit  from 
points  far  distant  from  our  large  markets.  While 
it  is  undoubtedly  profitable  to  raise  chickens 
to  sell  for  meat  as  other  stock  on  the  farm 
is  sold — for  it  costs  no  more  to  make  a  pound  of 
gain  on  the  chicken  than  on  the  hog  or  sheep  or 

309 


3IO  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING* 

beef  steer — it  is  equally  certain  that  at  our  Western 
markets  there  is  at  present  more  money  in  eggs 
than  in  meat.  Since  man  has  succeeded,  by 
selection  and  breeding,  in  increasing  the  laying 
capacity  of  the'  domestic  hen  from  40  eggs  a  year  to 
from  150  to  200  or  more,  and  since  by  investigation 
and  experiments  in  the  science  of  feeding  and  care 
he  has  made  it  possible  for  her  to  produce  a  goodly 
number  of  those  eggs  in  winter  when  eggs  are  high, 
it  is  the  farmer's  opportunity  to  employ  this  means 
of  adding  to  the  earnings  of  the  farm.  "Chores" 
in  winter  make  up  the  principal  part  of  the  farmer's 
work.  It  is  when  the  care  of  the  fowls  becomes  a 
part  of  the  chores  as  important  as  looking  after  the 
other  stock,  that  the  farmer  will  see  the  practical 
side  of  the  subject;  and  as  soon  as  he  becomes  truly 
interested  in  these  feathered  friends  of  his,  he  will 
find  the  "poultry  chores"  the  pleasantest  of  his 
daily  tasks. 

In  summer  the  farmer's  wife  or  daughters  usu- 
ally do  the  lighter  work  connected  with  the  poul- 
try, expecting  the  men  to  take  time  for  only  such 
heavier  tasks  as  the  cleaning  of  the  houses,  the 
making  of  crops,  feeding-racks,  etc.  This  out-of- 
door  work  is  most  beneficial,  both  to  the  women 
and  to  the  chickens.  Women,  as  a  general  thing, 
are  painstaking  and  faithful  in  their  care  of  little 
chickens,  and  are  usually  successful,  if  their  judg- 
ment is  as  good  as  their  intentions  and  if  they  are 
provided  with  conveniences  for  caring  for  them. 
These  are  not  expensive.  Many  of  them  simply 
require  a  little  time  from  a  man  handy  with  saw 
and  hammer.  Then,  too,  it  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance to  the  farmer  that  the  children  of  the  house- 
hold be  allowed  to  help  with  the  poultry 
so  that  they  may  become  interested  in  the 
creatures  around  them,  learning  early  in  life  to  be 


TYPES  OF  FOWLS.  311 

gentle  and  kind,  and  to  consider  the  comfort  and 
welfare  of  the  dumb  animals  upon  the  farm. 

Classification  of  Fowls. — With  respect  to  utility, 
chickens  are  divided  into  three  classes,  laying  fowls, 
general-purpose,  and  meat  fowls.  It  will  be  well 
first  to  describe  these  classes,  as  type  is  a  factor  in 
the  profitable  feeding  of  poultry,  as  well  as  of  other 
classes  of  animals.  If  the  farmer  wishes  hens  which 
will  lay  the  greatest  number  of  eggs  in  a  year  from 
the  least  amount  of  food,  he  will  find  it  well  to 
choose  one  of  the  laying  breeds.  These  are  called 
the  Mediterranean  class,  because  typical  birds  are 
supposed  to  have  come  originally  from  the  Medi- 
terranaen  coast.  If  he  desires  fowls  which  will  fur- 
nish more  meat  and  which  will,  also,  with  the  right 
kind  of  treatment,  lay  many  eggs,  it  will  be  better, 
for  him  to  select  one  of  the  general-purpose  breeds. 
But  if  his  chief  object  is  meat,  then  one  from  the 
Asiatic  class  will  suit  him  best. 

Class  I.  Laying,  or  Mediterranean,  Breeds. — 
It  is  the  active,  sprightly,  alert  hen  that  lays 
the  most  eggs — the  one  first  out  in  the  morn- 
ing and  the  one  last  on  the  roost  at  night.  Of  these 
Mediterranean  birds,  the  Leghorn  and  the  Minorca 
are  most  popular.  The  Minorca  lays  a  larger  egg 
than  the  Leghorn.  The  White  and  Buff  Leghorns, 
some  Leghorn  breeders  claim,  lay  larger  eggs  than 
the  other  varieties.  However  that  may  be,  the 
Leghorn — Black,  Buff,  Brown  or  White — as  bred 
today,  lays  a  much  larger  egg  than  the  Leghorn 
of  a  decade  or  two  ago.  The  White-faced  Black 
Spanish  lays  a  large  white  egg,  but  this  fowl  is  not 
so  popular  as  formerly,  probably  because  the  Mi- 
norca, which  has  Spanish  blood  in  its  veins,  has 
crowded  the  older  bird  from  its  place.  Here,  too, 
the  Andalusian  and  the  Hamburg  may  be  men- 
tioned, for  they  have  been  tried  as  egg  producers 


3I2 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


and  have  not  been  found  wanting.  The  former  is 
a  beautiful  bird,  if  one  has  not  the  waning  Ameri- 
can prejudice  against  white  skin  -and  dark  shanks; 
and  the  lattef  in  its  different  varieties  is  worthy  of 
its  many  admirers.  The  egg  of  the  Hamburg  is 
smaller  than  that  of  the  Leghorn.  As  these  fowls 


Laying   Type — Single   Comb   Brown   Leghorns. 

are  so-called  "non-sitters,"  the  farmer  who  has 
them  must  either  use  incubators  or  keep  some  of 
the  broody  types  for  sitters  and  mothers.  The  lat- 
ter may  easily  be  done  by  selecting  from  Classes 
II  and  III  hens  which  lay  brown  eggs,  since  the 
eggs  of  these  Mediterranean  fowls  are  pure  white. 
Class  II.  Of  the  general-purpose  breeds,  the 
Plymouth  Rocks  are  the  oldest  and  best  known.  Many 
people  prefer  the  Barred  to  the  Buff  or  White  Plym- 
outh Rock,  because  of  the  beauty  and  oddity  of  the 


TYPES  OF  FOWLS. 


313 


plumage.  The  Wyandotte,  a  bird  in  many  respects 
similar  to  the  Plymouth  Rock,  leans  perhaps  a  trifle 
more  toward  the  egg-producing  type.  Though 
there  is  no  Barred  species  here,  there  are  many 
beautiful  varieties  to  choose  from,  as  the  Silver- 
laced,  Golden-laced,  Black,  White,  and  Buff.  Color 
is,  however,  more  a  matter  of  individual  taste  than 
anything  else,  though  there  may  at  any  time  be 
strains  of  one  color  or  variety  of  a  breed  superior  to 


General-purpose  Type — Single   Comb   Buff   Orpingtons. 

strains  of  some  other  color  or  variety.  The  Rhode 
Island  Reds  and  the  Orpingtons  are  among  the 
newest  of  this  class,  and  they  are  proving  them- 
selves splendid  utility  fowls.  Of  the  Orpingtons, 
the  Buff  seems  to  be  the  favorite  in  America, 
though  the  White  and  the  Black  are  beautiful  birds, 
the  latter  being  thought  by  some  to  be  hardier 
than  the  others.  Hens  from  this  class  are  good  sit- 
ters and  excellent  mothers. 


314 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


Class  III.  Meat  Fowls,  also  Called  Asiatic.— 
These  are  the  largest  of  all  fowls.  To  this 
group  belong  the  Brahmas,  the  Langshans  and 
the  Cochins.  These  birds  are  gentle  and  tame, 
very  pleasant  to  handle,  and  with  proper  care 
the  pullets  and  young  hens  will  produce  many  eggs  ; 
yet  this  very  docility  and  sluggishness  of  disposi- 
tion make  them  less  prolific  egg  producers  than 
the  smaller  and  more  active  breeds.  They  will, 
however,  dress  more  pounds  for  the  market.  The 


i 


Meat  Type — Partridge  Cochins. 

flesh  is  juicy  and  sweet,  and  in  some  localities  near 
our  large  cities,  especially  those  of  the  Eastern  sea- 
board, birds  of  this  class  are  very  profitable.  These 
fowls  are  by  natural  disposition  good  sitters  and 
mothers,  but  their  great  size,  with  its  consequent 
awkwardness,  sometimes  interferes  with  their  value 
in  this  respect.  There  is,  however,  no  better  moth- 
er in  "chickendom"  than  a  good  Cochin,  Brahma, 
or  Langshan  hen  or  half-breed. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 
RAISING  LITTLE  CHICKS. 

When  to  Set  the  Eggs. — It  is,  of  course,  the  rais- 
ing of  the  little  chicks  that  forms  the  foundation  of 
our  success  with  poultry.  To  get  good  winter 
layers  we  must  set  the  eggs  at  the  proper  time, 
whether  we  use  for  this  purpose  incubators  or  hens. 
It  is  from  the  pullets  that  the  greatest  number  of  win- 
ter eggs  are  to  come.  They  must  be  hatched  so  they 
will  be  ready  to  begin  laying  in  November  or  early 
December.  Pullets  from  Class  I  should  begin  laying 
from  41/2  to  5^2  months  from  time  of  hatching;  from 
Class  II,  6  to  7  months;  from  Class  III,  7  to  8 
months.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  larger  Asiatic 
fowls,  to  lay  in  winter,  must  be  hatched  earlier  in 
the  spring  than  the  more  rapidly  maturing  Mediter- 
ranean and  general-purpose  breeds.  This  is  an 
argument  in  favor  of  these  latter  classes  for  the 
farm,  for  the  weather  is  apt  to  be  damp  and  cold 
in  the  early  spring  and  the  farmer  has  not  time  to 
take  the  extra  precaution  necessary  to  make  these 
early  hatches  a  success. 

Sitting  Hens. — On  many  farms  incubators  are 
now  used  for  hatching  chickens,  and  the  directions 
coming  with  the  machines  are  so  complete  that 
nothing  need  be  said  on  that  subject.  But  the  ma- 
jority of  farmers  still  rely  on  the  faithful  old  hen  to 
do  the  incubating.  Where  such  is  the  case  it  is 
much  more  satisfactory  to  keep  sitting  hens  by 
themselves  during  the  period  of  incubation.  Some 
building  not  in  use  in  the  summer — a  corn  crib  or 
granary  will  answer  very  well — may  easily  be  con- 

Ml 


3l6  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

verted  into  a  model  incubating  room.  New,  clean 
nest-boxes  may  be  ranged  along  the  wall  in  one, 
two,  or  even  three  tiers.  A  sod  should  be  cut  and 
put  in  the  bottom  of  the  box,  or  dirt  to  the  depth  of 
two  or  three  inches,  and  the  nest  of  fine  hay  or 
straw  or  leaves  laid  on  this,  plentifully  sprinkled 
with  insect  powder.  This  sod  or  earth  should  be 
dampened  several  times  during  incubation.  This 
imitates  Nature's  plan  of  a  nest  upon  the  ground, 
and  is  especially  beneficial  during  a  dry  season. 
Broody  hens  should  be  taken  from  their  nests  after 
dark  and  put  in  these  boxes  on  dummy  eggs.  Or,  if 
nest-boxes  are  hung  on  pegs  or  nails  in  the  hen- 
houses, these  may  be  removed  without  disturbing 
the  hens  and  hung  on  pegs  in  the  room  for  in- 
cubation. The  hens  may  be  fastened  in  for 
a  day  or  two,  if  thought  best,  and  inspected 
once  or  twice  a  day  afterward  to  see  that 
all  nests  are  covered;  or  the  house  may  be 
made  dark  and  opened  only  for  feeding,  etc.  At 
one  of  the  state  experiment  stations  a  double  nest  is 
used  in  a  house  of  this  kind,  the  eggs  being  put  in  the 
nest  behind.  The  hen  is  fastened  in  with  a  little  lattice 
gate.  If  she  becomes  restless  before  the  time  comes 
to  let  her  and  her  companions  out  for  their  food,  she 
stands  by  the  little  gate  and  her  eggs  are  in  no  danger 
of  being  broken.  Besides  good,  wholesome  food  and 
fresh,  clean  water,  the  hens  in  this  house  must  be 
provided  with  dust-box,  grit,  oyster  shell  and  char- 
coal. Chickens  when  hatched  may  be  taken  from 
some  of  these  hens  and  given  to  others,  the  hens  be- 
ing reset  if  they  are  in  good  condition,  with  red 
combs,  bright  eyes,  and  smooth,  glossy  plumage. 
The  straw  should  be  burned  in  the  nest  occasionally 
to  make  sure  there  are  no  mites,  and  the  hens  should 
be  thoroughly  dusted  with  insect  powder  every 


RAISING  LITTLE  CHICKS. 


317 


week  during  incubation  that  the  little  chicks  may 
leave  the  nest  free  of  lice. 

Shelter  for  Chicks. — Whether  hatches  are  early 
or  late,  provision  must  be  made  for  dry  quar- 
ters for  young  chicks,  though  the  risk  is  not  so 
great  with  later  hatches,  because  the  weather  is  warmer 
and  they  will  not  need  to  be  confined  so  long.  Damp- 
ness, too  hot  or  too  cold  brooders,  and  lack  of  fresh 
air  and  sunshine  are  among  the  chief  causes  of  mor- 
tality among  these  fluffy  little  creatures.  If  incu- 


Framework  of  Colony  Brooder  House,  built  by  students  at  Cornell 
University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

bators  and  brooders  are  used,  brooder  houses  must 
be  provided.  If  hens  are  to.  brood  the  young,  they 
must  have  large,  dry,  clean  coops  where  they  can  be 
shut  in  and  the  little  fellows  made  contented  on 
those  long,  rainy  days  that  invariably  come  in  the 
spring.  If  the  small,  old-fashioned  coops  are  used, 
they  may  be  put  in  some  barn  or  under  some  dry  shed 
until  the  weather  is  settled  or  until  the  chickens  are 


3l8  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

old  enough  to  go  to  the  hen-house  to  roost.  With 
most  breeds  it  is  entirely  practical  to  have  coops  or 
houses  built  large  enough  to  accommodate  several 
hens  with  broods  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  chicks 
each.  If  all  are  taken  off  the  nests  about  the  same 
time  and  are  kept  together  from  the  first,  the  hens 
will  usually  live  together  very  amicably.  This  does 
away  with  the  inconvenience  and  annoyance  aris- 
ing from  trying  to  drive  stubborn  old  biddies  into 
little  coops  at  night.  They  seem  to  like  these 
larger,  lighter,  more  inviting  places,  and  go  into 
them  of  their  own  accord.  Plenty  of  fresh  air  and 
light  are  admitted  by  using  i-inch  mesh  wire  net- 
ting in  the  front.  The  chicks  learn  very  early  to 
seek  refuge  from  storms  in  these  comfortable  places, 
and  need  almost  no  looking  after  when  showers  come 
up.  There  are  often,  too,  in  summer  time  on  a  farm, 
empty  barns  or  stables  in  which  little  chicks  may  be 
"started,"  and  if  these  places  are  not  needed,  the 
chickens  may  continue  to  roost  in  them  until  fall.  Lit- 
tle chicks  raised  about  the  barns  usually  grow  rapidly 
and  seem  to  thrive.  They  are  seldom  or  never  troubled 
with  bronchitis  or  catarrh  or  colds  of  any  kind.  If 
the  hens  are  confined  in  the  barns  with  them  for  a 
week  or  so — the  length  of  time  depending  on  the 
weather — they  will  usually  come  to  the  barn  to  be 
fed  at  meal  time,  and  are  very  little  trouble.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  barn  chickens  are  sup- 
plied with  plenty  of  pure  water,  lest  they  learn  to 
drink  from  pools  in  the  barnyard. 

Remedy  for  Colds. — Little  chicks,  through  ex- 
posure, often  contract  colds  which  cause  them  to 
sneeze  frequently  or  to  breathe  with  difficulty.  All 
such  cases  should  be  treated  as  soon  as  possible.  A 
few  drops  of  kerosene  oil  injected  into  the  nose  and 
throat  with  a  medicine  dropper  will  usually  bring  im- 
mediate relief,  and  one  or  two  treatments  will  effect 


3*9 


32O  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

a  cure,  if  the  cause  is  removed  and  the  bird  is  in  a 
thrifty  condition  otherwise.  However,  these  "colds," 
though  not  roup,  seem  nevertheless  to  be  contagious 
and  to  quarantine  or  kill  affected  birds  is  better  than 
to  risk  exposing  others.  Care  should  also  be  taken 
not  to  use  for  breeding  stock  chickens  which  have 
once  been  diseased  though  they  are  fully  recovered. 
In  poultry  raising  "an  ounce  of  prevention"  is  some- 
times worth  many  pounds  of  cure. 

Lice  on  Little  Chicks. — Should  there  be  any  of 
these  pests,  either  the  big  head-lice  or  those  that  in- 
fest the  body,  chicks  should  be  dipped  in  some 
good  sheep  dip  or  lightly  greased  on  head  and 
throat,  on  the  tail  bone,  about  the  vent,  and  under 
the  wings  with  fresh  lard  or  carbolized  vaseline  or 
sweet  oil,  to  which  may  be  added  one  or  two  drops 
of  carbolic  acid  to  100  drops  of  oil,  or  sassafras  oil 
in  the  proportion  of  one  ounce  of  the  sassafras  to 
six  ounces  of  the  sweet  oil.  The  little  fellows 
should  then  be  put  in  some  quiet,  shady  place.  Un- 
der no  consideration  should  young  poultry  of  any 
kind  be  subjected  to  the  hot  sun  after  being  greased 
on  the  head.  For  this  reason  the  greasing  would 
better  be  done  at  night.  Chicks  must  be  examined  once 
a  week,  and  if  there  are  lice — and  one  must  look 
thoroughly — no  pains  must  be  spared  to  get  rid  of 
them.  While  some  kind  of  grease  seems  to  be  the 
most  effectual  remedy  for  the  lice  on  head  and 
throat,  insect  powder  is  quite  sufficient  for  the  body 
lice.  Often  all  that  will  be  necessary  is  to  dust 
the  mother  hen  occasionally  or  put  a  little  grease 
under  her  wings.  If  this  is  not  sufficient,  then  the 
chicks  should  be  taken  one  at  a  time  and  dipped  or 
greased  or  thoroughly  dusted  with  powder.  The 
best  remedy  for  lice,  however,  as  for  contagious  in- 
digestion or  any  other  disease  in  the  poultry  yard 
is  absolute  cleanliness  about  the  coops  and  grounds, 


RAISING  LITTLE  CHICKS.  321 

with  disinfectants  used  frequently.  A  pail  of 
water  containing  crude  carbolic  acid  and  copperas 
makes  a  cheap  and  satisfactory  disinfectant.  White- 
wash containing  crude  carbolic  acid  or  salt  is  ex- 
cellent, especially  if  applied  hot.  "Zenoleum,"  Lam- 
bert's "Death  to  Lice,"  Lee's  "Louse  Killer,"  and 
other  preparations  on  the  market  are  convenient 
and  give  good  results. 

Feeding  Little  Chicks. — Food  should  not  be  given 
little  chicks  within  at  least  twenty-four  hours 
from  time  of  hatching.  Some  poultry  men  do 
not  feed  for  seventy-two  hours.  The  reason 
for  this  is,  of  course,  that  Nature  has  provided  a 
means  of  sustenance  for  the  young  chick  until  he 
has  strength  to  help  himself,  by  causing  the  ab- 
sorption, through  the  navel  into  the  abdomen,  of  a 
portion  of  the  egg  designed  for  the  purpose.  There 
are  two  methods  of  feeding  little  chickens :  one, 
moist  food ;  the  other,  dry  food.  Each  has  its  ad- 
vantages. 

i.  Dry  Food. — There  is,  perhaps,  less  mortality 
among  these  tiny  infants  when  dry  food  is  fed,  espe- 
cially if  the  season  is  wet.  There  are  excellent  food? 
upon  the  market  consisting  of  a  variety  of  whole- 
some grains,  which  may  be  used  by  the  farmer  to 
start  his  chicks.  These  mixed  grains,  with  milk  to 
drink  and  meat  scraps  occasionally,  make  a  balanced 
ration  upon  which  little  chicks  will  thrive  and  grow. 
The  farmer  can  make  a  mixture  of  grains  himself,  of 
rolled  or  pinhead  oats,  cracked  wheat,  barley,  buck- 
wheat, cracked  corn  (Kafir  corn  is  considered  best 
for  small  chicks),  millet,  hemp,  and  other  small  seeds. 
In  a  short  time  the  wheat  may  be  given  whole — screen- 
ings are  good  for  half-grown  chickens — the  oats 
simply  hulled,  and  the  corn  more  coarsely  cracked. 
The  necessity  of  variety  in  the  food  of  little  chicks  is 
not,  as  a  usual  thing,  considered  as  important  upon 


322          PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

the  farm  as  it  really  is.  Any  one  food,  however  excel- 
lent in  itself,  if  fed  exclusively  or  in  excess,  will  cause 
indigestion  in  young  poultry.  Hence,  farmers  who 
can  not  conveniently  prepare  this  variety  will  find 
it  economy  as  well  as  a  convenience  to  try  the  food 
prepared  by  persons  who  understand  the  nutritive 
values  of  various  foodstuffs. 

2.  Moist  Food. — When  bread  and  milk  is  fed,  it 
may  be  either  bread  from  the  table,  well  soaked 
and  at  least  twenty-four  hours  old,  or  "Johnny 
cake"  made  for  the  purpose.  The  bread  is  simply 
crumbled,  or  dipped  for  an  instant  in  milk  and  then 
squeezed  dry.  It  must  be  crumbly,  never  "sloppy" 
nor  sticky.  To  this  may  be  added  two  or  three  times 
a  week  meat  scraps  or  hard  boiled  eggs — eggs  di- 
gestible and  mealy,  not  tough  and  leathery.  These 
may  be  put  through  a  vegetable  or  meat  grinder,  shell 
and  all.  A  raw  egg  may  be  beaten  in  the  milk  in 
which  the  bread  is  moistened.  This  is  especially  desir- 
able in  damp,  cold  weather,  when  bowel  trouble  is  to 
be  feared.  At  such  times  it  is  well,  no  doubt,  to  some- 
times add  a  pinch  of  ginger  or  red  or  black  pepper. 
Cottage  cheese  is  an  excellent  food  to  give  either 
chickens  or  turkeys  occasionally,  but  not  as  a 
"steady  diet."  Cooked  rice  is  also  wholesome. 

If  bread  is  to  be  baked  especially  for  the  chicks, 
the  following  recipe  is  excellent : 

2  quarts  of  bran. 

2  quarts  of  coarse  corn  meal. 

1  quart  of  wheat  middlings,  or  shorts. 

1  handful  of  good  pure  beef  scrap. 

1  handful  of  good  chicken  grit. 

"Rub  together  dry  with  from  two  to  four  infertile 
eggs.  Mix  with  barely  enough  skim  milk  to  moisten 
it,  and  rub  the  whole  into  a  moist,  crumbly  mass  with 
the  hands,  then  put  in  a  well-greased  pan  (a  roasting 
pan  about  three  inches  deep  is  the  best)  and  press 


RAISING  LITTLE  CHICKS.  323 

down  hard  to  stick  the  cake  together.  Bake  in  a  slow 
oven  for  three  to  six  hours.  This  makes  an  easily- 
crumbled  cake,  and,  when  properly  prepared,  should 
have  no  stickiness  or  doughiness  about  it."  Some- 
times a  bread  of  this  sort  is  made  without  the  grit, 
then  broken  and  put  in  the  oven  where  it  is  dried 
out.  It  is  then  put  through  a  vegetable  grinder 
and  fed  dry  or  moistened  with  milk.  The  heat  has 
converted  the  starch  into  sugar  and  has  made  the 
food  very  digestible. 

As  grain  must  very  early  become  a  part  of  the 
little  chick's  ration  if  it  is  to  grow  up  a  strong 
bird  with  good  healthy  digestion,  it  is  well  to  have 
on  hand  a  mixture  of  small  and  cracked  grains 
similar  to  that  recommended  for  the  dry  food  chick  to 
feed  once  or  twice  a  day  after  the  first  few  days.  Lit- 
tle chicks  fed  in  this  way — especially  if  they  are  with 
the  hen  and  have  plenty  of  exercise — if  care  is 
taken  to  feed  regularly,  and  not  to  overfeed,  will  grow 
with  wonderful  rapidity. 

Grit. — The  importance  of  grit  must  not  be  over- 
looked from  the  start.  Grit  in  the  gizzard  of  the 
young  chick  is  as  necessary  for  the  proper  digestion  of 
its  food  as  teeth  are  in  the  mouth  of  the  young  calf 
when  he  receives  his  first  ration  of  grain.  In  the  one 
case,  Nature  has  already  provided  the  means  for 
mastication ;  in  the  other,  it  must  be  sought.  Those 
poultry  raisers  who  think  they  can  get  more  rapid 
gains  by  making  bread  and  milk  a  part  of  the  daily 
ration  for  the  young  chick  make  the  first  feed  in 
the  morning  bread  and  milk  and  sprinkle  grit  upon 
it  every  morning  for  the  first  ten  days  or  two  weeks. 
Many  who  advocate  and  use  the  dry  foods,  fearing 
the  little  things  will  not  pick  up  enough  of  the  grit 
scattered  in  the  litter  with  their  food,  for  the  very 
first  feed  give  bread  and  milk  with  grit  in  this  way. 
The  grit  should  be  either  sharp  sand  or  crushed 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

rock.  Farmers  will  find  it  profitable  to  buy  a  sack 
of  No.  I  chick  size  grit  early  in  the  season  before 
the  first  hatch  comes  off,  that  this  ingredient,  which 
Nature  in  her  plan  has  made  a  necessity  for  the 
bird  family,  shall  be  within  reach  at  all  times.  It 
is  we'll  to  be  provided  with  No.  2,  also,  for  the  half- 
grown  chickens,  and  later  with  the  largest  size,  No. 
3,  for  grown  fowls. 

Green  Food. — We  know,  of  course,  that  little 
chicks  to  "do  well"  must  have  some  tender,  succulent 
green  food.  On  a  farm  where  they  have  the  run  of 
blue  grass  yards  and  orchards,  and  clover  and  alfal- 
fa meadows,  this  point  needs  no  emphasis;  but 
should  they  for  any  reason  be  deprived  of  this,  the 
lack  must  be  supplied.  They  should  be  fed  blades 
of  grass  or  sprouted  grain,  leaves  of  clover  or  al- 
falfa, or  something  from  the  garden  like  lettuce 
or  cabbage. 

Overfeeding. — The  subject  of  feeding  young 
chickens  must  not  be  dismissed  without  a  word  of 
earnest  warning  against  the  error  of  overfeeding. 
Irregularity  and  overfeeding,  as  well  as  dampness 
and  lice,  have  sometimes  worked  sad  havoc  in  our 
flocks  of  little  chickens.  A  safe  rule  to  follow  in 
feeding  chickens,  as  in  feeding  the  growing  young 
of  all  animals,  is  never  to  feed  at  any  time  so  much 
but  that  they  would  gladly  eat  a  little  more.  When 
we  find  our  flock  of  young  birds  indifferent  to  our 
call  when  feeding  time  comes,  then  our  troubles 
are  begun.  After  trie  little  things  are  nicely  started, 
say  four  or  five  weeks  old,  there  is  not  the  danger 
to  be  feared  from  overfeeding.  After  that  time,  one 
may  keep  food  in  racks  to  which  the  young  chick- 
ens may  go  whenever  they  like.  These  racks  are 
very  convenient,  and  the  farmer's  wife  wants  many 
such  things  made  during  the  winter  when  work  is 
"slack."  They  may  be  made  of  slats  or  wire  net- 


RAISING  LITTLE  CHICKS. 

ting  so  arranged  as  to  prevent  the  hens  and  older 
fowls  from  getting  in.  A  rack  four  feet  square  is 
a  convenient  size.  A  self-feeder  trough,  wooden 
tray,  or  even  an  old  dripping  pan  or  clean  board 
may  serve  as  a  receptacle  for  the  food.  On  farms 
where  there  is  no  "park"  especially  for  "the  little 
chickens,  these  racks  are  indispensable. 

Water  for  Young  Chickens. — The  question  of 
how  much  water  to  give  is  not  a  "mooted"  one. 
There  is  but  one  answer,  and  that  is,  plenty  of  good, 
pure  water  or  skim  milk  before  the  chicks  at  all 
times.  Especially  is  this  true  on  the  farm,  whether 
the  chickens  are  brought  up  in  brooders  or  go  about 
with  their  mothers.  In  either  case,  they  can  be  fur- 
nished with  plenty  of  chaff  in  which  to  scratch  and 
keep  busy,  if  the  days  are  stormy  and  they  must  be 
shut  in.  If  little  chicks  have  nothing  to  do  but  to 
run  from  the  coop  to  the  water  fountain,  in  all 
probability  they  will  drink  too  much  water  and 
bring  on  diarrhoea.  If  chickens  are  given  water 
only  at  certain  times,  they  are  likely  to  be  very 
thirsty  and  will  drink  too  much ;  or,  if  there  is  no 
water  where  they  are  accustomed  to  find  it,  chickens 
on  the  farm  will  go  to  some  drain  or  "puddle"  in  the 
barnyard  and  drink  impure  water.  All  drinking 
fountains  should  be  so  constructed  that  the  young 
chickens  can  not  get  in  them  and  get  their  bodies 
wet.  There  are  excellent  fountains  on  the  market, 
from  the  little  ones  for  individual  coops  to  the  big 
ones  holding  several  gallons.  If  one  does  not  wish 
to  go  to  the  expense  of  buying  or  having  them 
made,  good  water  fountains  for  young  chickens  may 
be  made  by  driving  a  hole  with  a  nail  or  awl  in  a 
tin  coffee  or  tomato  can  about  one-half  inch  from 
the  top  or  open  end ;  this  can  being  filled  with  water, 
a  small  basin,  or  some  such  dish,  is  placed  over  the 
top  of  it,  and  the  two  are  inverted  together.  The 


326         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

water  stays  in  the  basin  as  high  as  the  hole  in  the 
can.  It  is  well  perhaps  to  add  a  little  piece  of  cop- 
peras to  the  water  occasionally,  for  a  mild  disin- 
fectant and  tonic,  or  "Douglas  mixture"  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  tablespoonful  to  a  pint  of  water.  The 
formula  for  Douglas  mixture  is: 
y2  Ib.  copperas. 

1  oz.  sulphuric  acid. 

2  gals,  water. 

Should  there  be  any  tendency  to  diarrhoea  that 
a  change  in  feeding  does  not  correct,  tincture  of 
nux  vomica  may  be  added  to  the  drinking  water  in 
the  proportion  of  five  drops  of  nux  vomica  to  one 
pint  of  water.  All  drinking  vessels,  as  well  as 
dishes  for  food,  should  be  kept  clean  through  fre- 
quent washings  and  scaldings.  In  summer  the  wa- 
ter should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the  sun  and 
become  warm  and  stale. 

Feeding  Older  Chickens. — When  the  chicks 
are  four  or  five  weeks  old,  whether  they  have 
been  soft-fed  or  dry-fed,  a  mash  may  be  given 
once  a  day,  consisting  of  ground  oats  and  corn, 
bran  and  shorts,  mixed  dry  and  crumbly,  slightly 
salted,  and  containing  two  or  three  times  a  week 
meat  scraps  or  blood  meal  or  some  other  form 
of  animal  protein.  When  skim  milk  is  to  be  had, 
let  the  mash  always  be  wet  up  with  milk.  Experi- 
ments prove  that  when  skim  milk  forms  a  part  of 
the  chick's  ration,  gains  are  greatly  increased.  It 
is  apparent  that  the  chick,  like  any  other  young, 
growing  animal,  must  have  a  ration  rich  in  pro- 
tein, the  muscle-making  nutrient.  Enough  fatten- 
ing material  must  be  given  to  make  the  body  plump 
and  even,  but  it  is  protein  and  mineral  matter  that 
furnish  material  for  bones,  muscles,  and  feathers, 
making  the  cockerel  prepotent  and  vigorous  and 
preparing  the  young  pullet  for  early  egg  produc- 


RAISING  LITTLE  CHICKS.  327 

tion.  Ground  bone  should  either  be  kept  before 
young  poultry  at  all  times  or  fed  frequently  to  fur- 
nish the  mineral  matter  which  the  young  chick 
requires.  Lime,  so  necessary  for  the  laying  hen, 
should  also  be  furnished  the  chick  after  it  is  nicely 
started.  Ground  oyster  shell  is  the  form  in  which 
lime  is  most  relished  by  poultry."  Charcoal  kept 
where  the  fowls,  young  and  old,  c2n  readily  get 
it,  absorbs  injurious  gases  which  may  form  during 
the  process  of  digestion,  cleanses  the  digestive  tract, 
and  helps  to  keep  the  fowls  in  good  healthy  condi- 
tion. The  charcoal  that  can  be  purchased  of  the 
supply  houses  is  superior  to  that  obtained  from  the 
grates  of  wood  stoves,  and  the  cost  of  it  is  slight. 

Fattening  the  Cockerels. — The  farmer  would  find 
it  profitable  to  separate,  when  they  are  about  a 
month  old,  the  cockerels  he  does  not  wish  to  keep 
for  breeding  purposes,  and  force  them  for  an  early 
market.  Experiments  prove  that  the  farmer  will 
be  well  paid  for  his  time  and  trouble,  even  if  he 
does  not  get  "fancy"  Eastern  prices.  Corn  should 
be  fed  now  more  largely,  and  ground  corn  made 
into  a  mash  with  bran  and  shorts  will  make  quicker 
gains  than  dry  grains.  A  finer,  quicker  finish 
will  be  acquired  if  the  mash  is  wet  up  with  skim 
milk,  and  it  should  be  made  thinner  than  for  chick- 
ens not  being  fattened.  If  skim  milk  cannot  be 
had,  then  some  animal  protein  should  be  given  two 
or  three  times  a  week.  The  chickens  should  be  fed 
three  times  a  day  all  they  will  eat  up  clean.  They 
should  have  some  green  food  for  variety,  and  plenty 
of  grit  and  fresh  water.  They  will  do  better,  also,  if 
not  confined  in  too  close  quarters.  We  shall  not 
speak  of  caponizing  here,  as  farmers  in  general 
have  neither  time  nor  inclination  for  this. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

CARE  OF  GROWN  FOWLS  IN  SUMMER. 

Parasites. — Caring  for  grown  fowls  in  summer 
would  be  a  trifling  matter  if  it  were  not  for  the 
parasites  that  beset  them.  However,  if  there  were 
no  difficulties  connected  with  poultry  raising,  it 
would  be  an  industry  all  would  wish  to  undertake, 
and  the  market  would  soon  become  overstocked.  It 
is  not  an  arduous  task  to  keep  hen-houses  so  clean 
that  mites  and  lice  and  nest  bugs  have  no  wish  to 
harbor  there.  It  is  simply  one  of  the  farm  chores 
and  should  be  done  with  as  much  regularity  and 
care  as  any  other  chore.  In  the  warmer  climates, 
where  the  summers  are  longer  and  the  sun  is  hotter, 
the  rounds  will  have  to  be  made  a  little  oftener 
than  in  the  colder  climates.  The  most  troublesome 
of  these  pests  are  the  chicken  mites,  though  the 
nest  bug,  "small  sister"  of  the  house  bedbug  as  it 
is  called,  sometimes  in  warm  climates  makes  itself 
very  obnoxious  in  the  hen-house. 

Lice. — The  lice  that  infest  the  body  of  the  hen 
during  the  day,  as  well  as  the  night,  can  usually  be 
kept  in  control  by  providing  plenty  of  dust  for  the 
hens  to  roll  in.  During  the  summer  a  healthy  hen 
on  the  farm  will  usually  keep  herself  comparatively 
free  from  lice  by  rolling  and  dusting  in  any  fine 
dirt  about  the  premises.  Fine  dust  kills  the  lice,  be- 
cause it  fills  the  breathing  pores,  excluding  oxygen, 
which  they,  like  all  other  animals,  must  have.  In 
the  winter,  boxes  for  the  purpose  should  be  put  in  a 
sunny  place  in  the  hen-house  and  filled  with  fine 
road  dust  which  has  been  gathered  during  the  hot, 

3*8 


CARE  OF  GROWN   FOWLS  IN  SUMMER.  329 

dry  months  of  summer  (July  and  August  are  best) 
and  stored  away  for  winter  use.  This  may  contain 
Persian  powder  or  pyrethrum,  or  any  good  insect 
powder,  sifted  coal  or  wood  ashes,  land  plaster,  sul- 
phur or  lime — any  one  of  these  or  some  of  each. 
If  this  is  not  sufficient  to  keep  the  hens  free  from 
lice,  they  would  better  be  caught  as  they  go  into 
the  house  in  the  evening  and  dusted  thoroughly 
with  insect  powder ;  or  as  they  come  out  on  a  warm, 
bright  morning,  they  may  be  dipped  in  warm  kero- 
sene emulsion  or  some  good  sheep  dip;  for,  while 
the  lice  do  not  prey  upon  the  hens  as  do  the  mites, 
they  annoy  them  greatly,  and  best  results  cannot 
be  obtained  when  they  exist. 

Mites. — It  is  the  wily  little  mite  that  does  the 
most  harm.  He  hides  by  day  in  corners,  cracks  and 
crevices,  sauntering  boldly  forth  at  night  to  gorge 
himself  on  the  life-blood  of  the  sleeping  hens.  So 
rapidly  do  these  insidious  little  fellows  multiply 
that,  undisturbed,  they  soon  become  a  mighty  army 
and  their  ravages  are  fearful,  but  fortunately  science 
has  discovered  weapons  with  which  they  may 
be  successfully  combated.  A  little  "stick-to-it- 
iveness"  is  the  chief  requirement  of  the  adversary. 
In  the  West,  salt  is  often  used  with  good  result. 
One  poultryman  describes  his  method  thus :  "On 
one  Monday  each  month,  water  in  which  the  clothes 
have  been  washed  is  saved  and  heated.  The  hen- 
house is  then  thoroughly  sprayed  with  this  hot  soap- 
suds, and  salt  is  thrown  in  handfuls  on  the  wet  sur- 
face, where  it  adheres,  forming  a  crust.  Roosts  and 
nest-boxes  are  given  a  similar  treatment."  If  the 
eggs  are  to  be  used  for  hatching,  however,  salt 
should  not  be  used  about  the  nests,  for  eggshells  are 
porous  and  the  delicate  germ  within  may  be  injured. 
A  good  practice  is  to  use  nest-boxes  that  can  be 
easily  removed.  Pegs  or  nails  may  be  driven  in  the 


33O  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

walls,  and  boxes  having  holes  bored  in  them  may  be 
hung  on  these  pegs.  Then  once  a  month  in  summer, 
or  oftener  if  need  be,  these  boxes  may  be  taken  out- 
side and  the  nest  straw  burned  in  them.  This  is 
really  a  killing  of  two  birds  with  one  stone,  for  it  de- 
stroys the  old  straw  and  disinfects  the  nest-box. 
By  this  method,  too,  there  is  no  danger  of  tainted 
eggs  from  the  absorption  through  the  porous  shell 
of  unpleasant  odors,  as  when  kerosene  or  coal-tar 
remedies  are  used.  Kerosene  is,  however,  a  most 
excellent  remedy  to  use  about  the  roosts  and  walls, 
and  is  the  one  most  frequently  employed  by  poul- 
trymen  to  rid  their  premises  of  mites.  It  is  sure 
death  to  every  mite  and  mite's  egg  it  comes  in  con- 
tact with.  The  house  may  be  sprayed  or  sprinkled 
with  pure  kerosene  and  the  roosts  thoroughly 
washed  with  it,  or  kerosene  emulsion  may  be  made 
and  used  in  a  similar  manner.  The  last  is,  of  course, 
cheaper  and  it  is  quite  as  effective.  The  recipe  for 
kerosene  emulsion  is  as  follows: 

"Shave  one-half  pound  of  common  hard  soap  into 
one  gallon  soft  water  and  bring  to  a  boil.  Remove 
from  fire  and  stir  into  it  at  once  two  gallons  of 
kerosene  oil.  Churn  thoroughly  with  force  pump  or 
churn  dasher  until  it  forms  a  creamy  white  mass, 
which  becomes  a  jelly  when  cold.  When  ready  to 
use  for  dip,  spray  or  wash,  dilute  with  ten  gallons 
of  soft  water." 

Nest  Bugs. — The  same  remedy  used  for  mites 
ought,  if  applied  with  thoroughness,  to  rid  the 
house  of  nest  bugs,  remembering  always  that  no 
grease,  kerosene  or  salt  should  be  used  around  sit- 
ting hens.  Shutting  up  the  house  and  burning  brim- 
stone occasionally  is  a  good  thing,  and  it  is  well  to 
see  that  the  houses  are  thoroughly  whitewashed  at 
least  twice  a  year,  a  liberal  supply  of  crude  carbolic 


CARE  OF  GROWN   FOWLS  IN   SUMMER.  33! 

acid,  salt,  or  some  other  disinfectant  being  added  to 
the  whitewash. 

The  feeding  of  hens  that  have  the  range  of  the 
farm  in  summer  requires  but  little  thought  further 
than  to  see  that  there  is  clover  or  alfalfa  or  a  patch 
of  rape — or,  better,  that  all  three  of  these  are  where 
the  hens  may  go  into  them  at  will.  A  little  grain 
should  be  given  twice  a  day ;  it  may  be  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  buckwheat,  millet,  sorghum,  or  a  little  corn 
sometimes.  A  mash  is  good  occasionally  for  va- 
riety, always  salted,  and  stirred  up  with  skim  milk 
if  one  has  it.  Plenty  of  fresh  water  or  milk  to  drink 
must  be  supplied.  All  the  broken  dishes  and  thick 
glass  about  the  place  should  be  pounded  up  for  the 
hens.  They  like  it  better  than  any  other  grit.  It  is 
an  excellent  plan  for  the  housewife  to  make  the 
pounding  up  of  such  ware  the  penalty  for  breaking 
dishes.  Let  the  hens  have  a  sand  pile,  too,  or  they 
and  the  small  boy  can  divide  the  sand  pile  between 
them.  Throw  out  a  bucket  of  wood  ashes  once  in  a 
while  where  they  can  get  it.  Furnish  plenty  of 
oyster  shell  and  ground  bone,  and  then  if  a  box  of 
charcoal  is  kept  before  them  our  fortifications  are 
complete. 

During  moulting  season  hens  must  have  the  best 
of  care.  It  is  the  critical  time  of  the  year  to  them. 
They  must  be  fed  the  most  wholesome  and  nutri- 
tious foods,  those  rich  in  protein  from  which  new 
feathers  may  be  made — wheat,  barley,  oats,  peas. 
Corn,  too,  may  now  be  given.  Sunflower  seed  is 
excellent  at  this  time.  If  mashes  are  given,  let 
them  be  dry  and  crumbly,  and  it  will  hasten  the 
growth  of  feathers  if  they  contain  each  day  a  little 
flaxseed  meal.  Beans  soaked  over  night  and  then 
cooked  until  soft  and  made  into  a  stiff  mash  with 
corn  meal  is  also  an  excellent  food  for  moultio^ 


332  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING, 

hens.  They  ought  to  have  animal  protein  at  this 
time,  too,  especially  if  they  have  no  skim  milk. 
Nothing  is  better  than  coarsely  ground  green 
bone.  If  this  cannot  be  provided,  then  some  of  the 
poultry  foods  on  the  market  containing  ground 
bone  may  be  used,  as  Swift's  "Ideal  Poultry  Food" 
or  Cypher's  "Beef  Scrap."  Drinking  water  at  this 
time  may  contain  "Douglas  mixture,"  two  table- 
spoonfuls  to  the  pint.  If  there  is  an  inclination 
towards  diarrhoea,  use  carbolic  acid,  one  teaspoonful 
to  one  quart  of  water ;  or  a  strong  tea  of  white  oak 
bark  may  be  made  and  one  pint  added  to  each  quart 
of  water.  Tincture  of  mix  vomica  may  be  used  as 
for  little  chicks — five  drops  to  the  pint.  A  simple 
little  home  remedy  used  by  some  farmers'  wives  to 
correct  any  little  derangement  in  digestion  that 
may  appear  in  the  flock  is  to  give  twice  a  week  in  a 
panful  of  milk  a  tablespoonful  of  a  mixture  made  by 
sifting  or  rubbing  together  equal  parts  of  Epsom 
salts,  cayenne  pepper,  sulphur  and  common  baking 
soda.  If  condimental  foods  are  necessary  at  any 
time,  we  can  prepare  our  own  much  cheaper  than 
we  can  buy  them.  However,  with  clean,  dry 
houses,  a  variety  of  food,  plenty  of  grit  and  exer- 
cise, hens  should  keep  in  perfect  condition  without 
need  of  condiments. 


i 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

CARE  OF  HENS  IN  WINTER. 

Houses. — While  the  hens  are  moulting  and  rest- 
ing, the  houses   should    be   put  in   shape  for  the 
winter.    If    new    houses    are .  to    be    built,    they 
should    be     ready     for     the     hens    by     the     mid- 
dle    of     October.     Battening     and     banking     and 
repairing  old  houses  ought  to  be  done  before  the 
hens  begin  laying  their  winter  clutch  of  eggs.     We 
must  not  wait   until  some   cold   night  comes   and 
frosts  the  combs  of  our  best  hens,  or  a  cold  wind 
sweeps  through  the  building  and  gives  them  catarrh 
or  roup,  before  we  make  all  snug  and  comfortable. 
When  laying  begins  we  must  see  to  it  that  nothing 
occurs  to  stop  the  flow  of  eggs,  for  if  it  once  stops, 
in  all  probability  it  will  not  begin  again  until  spring, 
when  eggs  have  become  cheap.    Some  people  think 
it  is  necessary  to  build  expensive  houses  to  get  the 
hens  to  lay  in  winter.    This  is  a  mistake.   Quite  as 
good   results   have  been   obtained   from   some  old 
barn  or  outbuilding  converted  into  winter  quarters, 
or  from  some  inexpensive  home-made  structure,  as 
from  a  costly  house  built  for  the  purpose.   The  ob- 
ject of  a  house  is  to  make  the  hens  "comfortable." 
W^hat,  then,  is  a  hen's  idea  of  comfort?   Is  it  not  a 
warm  place  to  sleep  at  night,  where  there  is  no 
danger  of  draught  or  dampness,  yet  where  the  air 
is  pure;  and  a  cheery  place  to  work  in  during  the 
day?    Her  ideas  in  this  are  not  so  different,  after 
all,  from  those  of  some  of  her  featherless  neighbors. 
In  constructing  a  house,  let  the  farmer  keep  in 
mind  the  following  principles,  then  build  according 

333 


334 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


mmmmm 


CARE  OF   HENS   IN   WINTER. 


335 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

to  his  taste  and  the  size  of  the  flock  he  wishes  to 
keep:  all  houses  (i)  should  stand  on  well  drained 
ground,  (2)  should  face  the  south  or  southeast, 
(3)  should  have  roosting  places  protected  from 
draughts,  (4)  should  have  removable  perches  and 
nest-boxes  that  may  be  easily  cleaned,  and  (5)  a 
scratching  place  of  ample  size.  Dr.  D.  E.  Salmon, 
for  many  years  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  makes  practical  suggestions  for  houses 
in  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  141,  "Poultry  on  the 
Farm."  A  house  described  in  Bulletin  No.  100, 
Maine  Experiment  Station,  under  the  head  of  "Open 
Houses,"  would  adapt  itself  admirably  to  the  use  of 
farmers  in  Northern  climates.  There  are  a  few 
windows  in  the  south,  or  front,  but  there  is,  in  addi- 
tion, a  considerable  space  between  the  windows,  fit- 
ted with  a  frame  covered  with  cloth  and  hinged  at 
the  top,  which  may  be  let  down  on  very  cold  or 
very  stormy  days  and  nights.  There  is  also  a  frame 
or  curtain  in  front  of  the  perches,  which  is  let  down 
every  night  in  cold  weather.  This  keeps  the  fowls 
warm  and  at  the  same  time  admits  plenty  of  pure 
air.  Experiments  prove  that  hens  in  such  houses 
may  be  made  to  lay  abundantly  in  winter,  if  their 
circulation  is  kept  up  during  the  day  by  wholesome 
food  and  plenty  of  exercise  in  the  deep  litter  of  the 
scratching  shed.  That  they  are  happier  thus  em- 
ployed, their  cheery  song  on  a  cold  winter  morning 
gives  ample  proof. 

Feeding  for  Eggs. — If  in  the  fall  the  farmer  has 
a  flock  of  thrifty  hens,  pullets  mostly — none 
over  two  years  old,  except  perhaps  a  few 
for  breeding  stock  or  mothers — how  must  he 
feed  to  make  them  profitable?  First,  he  must 
find  out  the  composition  of  the  egg,  just  as 
he  has  found  out  the  composition  of  milk  that  he 


tf  M 
on 

;i 

Ss 


§1 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

may  know  what  to  feed  his  cows.  The  egg,  like 
milk,  is  composed  largely  of  protein,  and  the  hen  to 
produce  eggs  must  be  fed  protein,  just  as  the  cow  is 
fed  protein  to  produce  milk.  But  the  hen  does  not 
belong  to  the  bovine,  but  to  the  avis  or  bird  family, 
and  for  best  results  she  must  have  more  variety  in 
her  ration  than  the  cow,  and  much  more  exercise. 
Grain. — One  reason  that  so  many  of  the  farmers 
in  the  West  do  not  get  eggs  in  winter  is  that  their 
hens  are  too  fat.  The  hen,  like  most  other  animals, 
prefers  corn  to  any  other  food,  and  when  her  favor- 
ite food  lies  in  great  open  piles  around  her  she  is 
going  to  eat  her  fill,  especially  if  she  is  given  noth- 
ing else  in  its  place.  We  have  a  problem  here  that 
the  corn-belt  farmer  will  have  to  solve  if  he  would 
have  plenty  of  fresh  eggs  in  winter;  for  we  know 
that  when  a  hen  becomes  excessively  fat,  the  ovules 
are  paralyzed  and  it  is  a  physical  impossibility  for 
her  to  lay.  The  hens  on  many  Iowa,  Nebraska  and 
Illinois  farms — and  in  other  states,  too,  no  doubt — 
are  often  in  such  condition.  It  hardly  needs  to  be 
said  that  they  are  of  such  value  only  as  the  butcher 
puts  upon  them,  and  the  sooner  they  are  in  his 
possession  the  better.  Hens  should  be  examined 
frequently  after  they  go  to  roost,  and  the  amount 
of  corn  fed  in  winter  governed  by  the  condition 
they  are  in  and  the  severity  of  the  weather.  It 
is  true  that  certain  types  have  a  greater  tendency 
to  put  on  fat  than  others.  It  is  more  natural  for 
the  Asiatic  and  general-purpose  fowls  to  become 
fat  than  for  those  of  the  Mediterranean  class,  just 
as  it  is  more  natural  for  Angus,  Hereford  and 
Shorthorn  cows  to  convert  their  food  into  fat  than 
for  the  Holsteins  and  the  Jerseys.  Oats,  peas, 
wheat,  barley,  buckwheat,  millet,  etc.,  contain  less 
starch  and  oils  than  corn  and  are  excellent  grains 
to  keep  in  the  litter  for  hens  to  scratch  in,  some- 


CARE  OF   HENS   IN   WINTER. 


339 


times  one,  sometimes  another,  and  again  perhaps  a 
mixture — hens  like  little  surprises.  Bundles  of  un- 
thrashed  wheat  are  excellent  to  open  and  throw  into 
the  scratching  shed  for  a  grain  ration.  Oat-and-pea 
hay  is  also  good. 

Animal  Protein. — It  is  the  animal  protein  and  the 
succulent  green  food  the  hen  gets  in  summer  for 
herself  which  she  misses  most  in  winter,  and  with 
which  she  must  be  supplied  if  she  is  going  to  pro- 


Poultry  House,  Utah  Experiment  Station,  Logan,  Utah. 

duce  many  eggs.  There  is  now  no  freshly  turned  sod 
for  her  to  scratch  in  for  bugs  and  worms,  no  flies  are 
sailing  by  for  her  to  catch  in  mid  air,  no  grass- 
hoppers are  in  the  new-mown  hay.  Clover  and  al- 
falfa fields  are  dry  and  brown,  or  white  with  snow. 
She  goes  within  doors,  reluctantly  at  first,  perhaps, 
but  she  soon  forgets  "the  pleasures  of  summer"  if  her 
few  wants  are  carefully  and  regularly  supplied. 
Animal  protein  may  be  easily  furnished  in  the  form 


34°  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

of  skim  milk,  meat  scraps  from  the  table  or  those 
we  buy,  ground  bone  from  the  butcher  shop,  the 
waste  from  butchering,  an  occasional  liver  or  heart 
from  the  butcher's,  hung  up  for  the  hens  to  pick  at, 
or  cooked  and  chopped.  Blood  meal  is  good,  but 
that  does  not  contain  bone  and  is  therefore  not  so 
good  to  buy  for  the  hens  as  the  poultry  foods  on 
the  market,  which,  like  Swift's  "Ideal  Poultry 
Food,"  contain  ground  bone  as  well  as  dried  meat 
and  blood.  Old  horses  that  have  outlived  their 
usefulness  are  sometimes  killed  and  skinned,  and 
the  meat  buried  in  snow  or  packed  in  salt 
to  be  given  the  hens  in  winter.  Preserved  in 
the  former  way  it  may  be  fed  raw  or  cooked;  in 
the  latter  it  should  be  freshened  and  then  slowly 
cooked.  On  farms  where  there  is  skim  milk  in 
plenty,  no  more  economical  use  can  be  made  of  it 
than  by  using  it  in  any  mashes  that  may  be  made 
for  the  hens,  and  by  giving  it  to  them  to  drink.  In 
winter  it  should  be  warmed. 

Green  Food. — In  the  fall  when  the  farmer  is 
filling  his  cellar  with  good  things  for  winter  use,  let 
him  not  forget  the  staunch  little  friends  in  the  hen- 
house. They  dearly  love  cabbage.  Let  them  have 
all  the  loose,  unfilled  heads  and,  if  there  are  not 
enough  of  those,  some  of  the  sound  ones.  They 
ought  to  have  cabbage  twice  a  week  and  onions  oc- 
casionally, but  neither  cabbage  nor  onions  often 
enough  to  "flavor"  the  eggs.  Beets  of  all  kinds — 
sugar  beets,  garden  beets,  mangel-wurzels — are  ex- 
cellent for  hens.  Give  them  all  the  vegetable  trim- 
mings from  the  kitchen.  There  is  little  in  this  line 
they  cannot  be  trained  to  eat.  If  apples  are  plenti- 
ful and  cheap,  cut  up  apples  for  them  sometimes, 
as  well  as  save  for  them  all  parings.  They  will  rel- 
ish potato  skins  in  winter  for  variety  better  raw 
than  cooked,  and  will  take  some  potatoes  whole, 


CARE  OF   HENS   IN   WINTER.  34! 

too,  if  there  are  plenty.  If  you  have  silos,  be  sure 
to  carry  to  the  hen-house  two  or  three  times  a 
week  heaping  pans  of  corn  silage,  and  watch  the 
hens  devour  it.  But  the  foods  "par  excellence" 
for  hens  in  winter  are  clover  and  alfalfa.  Alfalfa 
contains  a  higher  percentage  of  protein  than  clover, 
but  both  are  rich  in  this  egg-producing  element.  A 
good  plan  is  to  scrape  up  the  leaves  and  litter  from 
the  floor  of  the  barns,  and  either  feed  it  dry  or  steam 
it  and  feed  it  in  a  mash  with  ground  oats  and  corn, 
bran  and  shorts.  Cut  clover  or  alfalfa  may  also  be 
fed  in  this  way.  Little  racks  may  be  made  in  the 
hen-houses,  in  which  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  may  be 
fed  the  same  as  to  other  stock.  Clover  and  alfalfa 
may  be  given  in  the  form  of  meal,  if  one  cares  to  go 


Double  House  with   Scratching  Shed. 


to  the  trouble  and  expense  of  buying  meal  or  having 
it  ground.  It  is  really  not  an  expensive  food  when 
we  consider  how  far  a  little  alfalfa  or  clover  meal 
goes,  but  it  hardly  seems  necessary  for  the  farmer 
to  do  this;  when  he  has  it  so  abundantly,  there  is 
no  harm  done  if  a  few  stems  are  wasted. 

In  regard  to  the  manner  of  feeding,  poultrymen 
do  not  agree.  Some  think  it  best  to  feed  mash 
once  a  day,  others  think  they  get  sufficiently  good  re- 
sults with  feeding  it  three  or  four  times  a  week. 
Some  claim  it  is  best  in  winter  to  feed  this  mash  the 
first  thing  in  the  morning,  not  giving  so  much  but  that 
the  hens  will  scratch  in  the  litter  for  grain;  others 
feed  the  hot  mash  late  in  the  afternoon.  Excellent 


342          PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

results  may  be  obtained  from  feeding  thus :  grain  in 
the  litter  in  the  morning,  a  mash  at  noon  three  times 
a  week  containing  animal  protein,  on  other  days 
corn  silage,  or  raw  potatoes,  apples,  sliced  beets,  cab- 
bages, or  some  such  food — with  clean  clover  or 
alfalfa  within  reach  at  all  times ;  and,  for  a  last  feed 
at  night,  ear-corn  broken  in  pieces  an  inch  or  two 
long.  This  seems  a  practical  plan  for  the  farmer,  as 
there  is  seldom  an  extra  hand  who  can  take  time  to 
stir  mashes  early  in  the  morning  or  late  in  the  after- 
noon. All  mashes  for  chickens  should  be  salted. 
While  salt  in  excess  is  a  rank  poison  to  them,  they 
need  a  little  of  this  mineral.  It  is  signifi- 
cant that  nearly  all  condimental  poultry  foods 
contain  common  salt.  There  is  no  harm  in 
adding  a  pinch  of  black  or  red  pepper  or 
ginger  occasionally  to  supply  the  lack  of  certain  ele- 
ments they  get  from  seeds  and  weeds  in  summer.  See 
to  it  that  the  supply  of  grit,  sand,  oyster  shell  and 
charcoal  is  never  omitted,  and  if  the  very  best  results 
are  to  be  obtained  ground  bone  should  be  within  reach 
at  all  times.  Self-feeding  hoppers  with  compartments 
for  the  different  ingredients  may  be  bought  of  the 
supply  houses  or  made  at  home,  keeping  the  foods 
clean  and  preventing  waste. 

Water  for  Hens  in  Winter. — But  with  all  the 
precautions  we  may  take  and  the  care  we  may  ex- 
pend on  our  hens,  they  will  not  lay  in  winter  if  they 
are  stinted  in  their  supply  of  that  cheapest  of  all  ma- 
terials— water.  The  farmer  who  relies  on  his  hens  go- 
ing out  to  get  water  from  the  tank  where  the  horses 
drink,  or  to  the  trough  where  the  pigs  feed,  will  be 
sadly  disappointed  if  he  expects  to  get  eggs  in  winter. 
Sixty-six  per  cent  of  the  egg  is  water,  and  the  hen, 
besides  needing  water  to  make  the  egg,  needs  it  to 
keep  her  own  body  in  good  condition.  The  best  rule 
undoubtedly  is  to  fill  all  water  fountains  with  warm 


CARE  OF   HENS   IN   WINTER. 


343 


water  the  first  thing  in  the  morning — and  when  they 
are  empty  to  fill  again,  When  the  last  rounds  are 
made  at  night  any  water  remaining  in  the  dishes 
should  be  thrown  out.  The  most  satisfactory  ves- 
sels for  watering  grown  fowls  are  the  wall  foun- 
tains which  can  now  be  obtained  at  the  poultry 
supply  houses.  When  one  thinks  of  the  time  and 
steps  saved  in  having  such  a  convenience  the  ques- 


Interior   of   inexpensive   house,   showing  dust-bath,   hoppers   for 
oyster  shell,  grit,  etc.    Courtesy  Mr.  Clarence  Ward,  Chicago. 

tion  of  expense  is  nothing.  These  fountains  in  the 
large  size  hold  two  gallons,  and  are  so  constructed 
that  the  wattles  of  high-combed  birds  cannot  get 
in  the  water,  thus  lessening  the  risk  of  freezing 
these  pendulous  ornaments.  The  water  does  not 
get  dirty,  and  if  the  fountain  is  hung  back  in  the 
house  out  of  the  wind,  it  does  not  freeze.  In  win- 
ter, as  in  moulting  season,  a  little  tonic  may  be 
given  sometimes  in  the  drinking  water. 
Little  Danger  from  Disease. — If  there  is  no 


344          PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

draught  on  the  fowls  at  night,  and  they  are  kept  busy 
during  the  day  in  a  well-ventilated  scratching  pen, 
there  will  be  no  catarrh  or  roup.  If  they  have  a  good 
dust  bath  in  a  sunny  spot,  Avith  plent  of  clean  grit 
and  pure  water,  there  will  be  few,  if  any,  cases  of  in- 
digestion. If  there  should  be  cases  of  such  from 
greediness  on  the  part  of  the  hen  or  overfeeding  on 
the  part  of  the  attendant,  a  dose  of  castor  oil,  sweet 
oil  or  Epsom  salts  given  at  once  with  patient  shut 
away  from  food  for  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six 
hours,  and  then  fed  lightly  on  nutritious  food,  will 
often  effect  a  speedy  and  permanent  cure.  Some- 
times, simply  shutting  away  from  food  for  a  period 
will  produce  a  cure.  However,  if  a  case  of  indiges- 
tion is  not  attended  to  as  soon  as  observed,  the 
hatchet  is,  as  a  rule,  the  only  practical  remedy  to  be 
applied,  as  hens  have  little  power  of  resistance  when 
a  disease  is  once  seated. 

America  Deficient  in  System. — Notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  the  product  of  the  hen  in  the  United 
States  for  1900  was  estimated  at  $290,000,000,  we 
are  as  yet  but  in  the  a-b-c  stage  of  the  poultry  indus- 
try. The  possibilities  before  us  in  this  fortunate  land 
are  almost  limitless.  Nor  must  those  of  us  interested 
in  the  growth  of  this  industry  rest  until  we 
have  secured  for  our  country  such  a  system  as  ob- 
tains in  some  foreign  countries  today,  most  notably 
Denmark.  It  is  a  hopeful  sign  that  in  the  best  grocer- 
ies of  our  inland  cities,  as  well  as  in  those  of  the 
Eastern  and  Western  seaboards,  eggs  are  now  to  be 
found  stamped  with  the  name  of  the  producer  and  the 
date  on  which  they  were  laid.  May  the  time  be  not 
far  distant  in  this  great  America,  when  eggs  shall 
be  bought  and  sold  by  weight  and  the  man  who 
puts  upon  the  market  an  egg  of  inferior  quality 
shall  render  himself  liable  to  a  fine,  thus  removing 
the  temptation  to  sell  undersized,  underflavored  or 


CARE  OF   HENS   IN   WINTER. 


345 


ill-flavored  eggs.  When  this  is  true,  our  brethren  of 
the  cities  will  cheerfuly  pay  choice  prices  for  eggs, 
because  they  are  getting  an  article  "of  guaranteed 
weight,  freshness,  and  flavor,"  and  we,  whose  part  it 
is  to  furnish  such  eggs,  shall  find  in  this  appreciation 
of  our  efforts  an  incentive  to  put  upon  the  market 
the  best  that  can  be  produced. 


Interior  arrangement  in  Poultry  House  and  students  feeding  fowls, 
Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

TURKEYS  AND  GUINEAS. 

Turkey  raising,  in  former  years  a  source  of  pleas- 
ure and  profit  to  many  farmers,  has  recently  become 
unpopular.  Some  of  our  most  experienced  turkey 
raisers,  becoming  discouraged  through  numerous 
losses,  have  given  up  the  growing  .of  turkeys — for 
the  present  at  least.  It  is  well  that  the  alarm  be 
sounded ;  for,  unless  something  is  done  to  restore  to 
this  bird  sufficient  vigor  of  constitution  to  enable  it 
to  withstand  the  attacks  of  the  dread  disease  which" 
is  depleting  our  flocks  in  the  West  and  Middle 
West — as  well  as  in  New  England  and  the  East — 
the  plump  form  of  the  turkey  in  a  few  years  will 
cease  to  grace  our  Thanksgiving  table.  If  we  would 
save  to  America  the  beautiful  bird  which  has  been 
a' part  of  her  history  since  the  days  of  the  earliest 
settlers,  we  must  discover  wherein  our  error  lies, 
and  remedy  it,  if  remedy  is  within  our  power. 

Cause  of  Diminished  Vitality. — Is  it  that  we  have 
failed  to  understand  the  nature  of  this  shy  bird 
of  the  forest  and  have  attempted  domestication 
where  domestication  is  impossible,  or  have  we,  in 
disregarding  the  laws  of  selection  and  breeding, 
laid  the  foundation  of  this  deadly  germ  disease, 
hepatitis,  or  "blackhead,"  as  it  is  more  commonly 
called?  The  fact  that  turkeys  kept  upon  large 
tracts  of  land  where  the  conditions  are  as  nearly 
as  possible  like  the  conditions  of  the  free  and  in- 
dependent wild  turkey,  from  which  the  so-called 
"domestic  turkey"  originally  sprung,  have  failed  to 
contract  the  disease,  even  when  inoculated  with 

346 


TURKEYS  AND  GUINEAS.  347 

the  germs,  goes  to  prove  that  domestication  has 
had  something  to  do  with  undermining  the  con- 
stitution of  the  turkey.  Then,  too,  we  have  known 
for  years  that  inbreeding  could  not  with  safety  be 
practiced  with  turkeys,  and  yet  neighbors  in  a  com- 
munity would  find,  if  the  lineage  of  the  turkeys  in 
their  flock  could  be  traced,  that  sometimes  all  the 
turkeys  of  the  neighborhood  are  more  or  less  re- 
lated. To  exchange  "gobblers,"  or  to  buy  one  a 
few  miles  distant,  or  even  to  go  without  one,  rely- 
ing upon  the  service  of  a  neighbor's  torn,  has  often 
been  deemed  a  quite  sufficient  introduction  of  "new 
blood."  More  than  this,  turkey  raisers  have  too 
often  been  indifferent  to  the  importance  of  select- 
ing for  breeders  mature  birds — the  proudest  and 
handsomest  of  the  flock,  as  well  as  the  most  vigor- 
ous and  healthy.  Too  often  the  undersized,  the 
late  hatched  pullets  or  toms — such  as  could  not  be 
sold  for  profit  at  market  time — have  been  left  over 
to  be  used  next  year  for  breeding  purposes.  It  may 
be,  too,  that  the  fanciers  have  erred  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  in  breeding  for  size  and  beauty  have 
sometimes  lost  sight  of  the  fact  that  stamina  is  a 
far  more  important  quality. 

A  Serious  Problem. — Whether  any  one  of  these 
mistakes,  or  all  of  them,  or  some  error  not  yet  dis- 
covered, has  been  the  means  of  the  turkey's  un- 
doing, one  fact  remains  clear  and  undisputed,  and 
that  is  that  turkey  raisers  are  confronted  with  a 
most  serious  problem.  It  is  only  by  the  co-operation 
of  experiment  stations  and  government  officials  with 
turkey  raisers  and  farmers,  together  with  the 
passage  of  laws  of  strict  governmental  inspection, 
that  we  may  hope  to  gain  the  upper  hand  of  a  dis- 
ease which,  while  it  may  not  be  a  menace  to  the 
health  of  our  people,  because  it  is  said  not  to  be 
communicable  to  human  beings,  yet  threatens  dire 


348 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


disaster  to  this  important  branch  of  the  poultry  in- 
dustry. 

Investigations  in  Rhode  Island. — Because  we  are 
still  young  in  the  West  and  our  experiment  stations 
are  not,  for  the  most  part,  equipped  with  facilities 
for  experimentation  in  this  line  of  work,  it  may  be 
well  to  call  the  attention  of  Western  farmers  to 
the  work  done  in  the  East,  especially  at  the  Rhode 
Island  Experiment  Station,  where  investigations 
with  this  disease  have  been  carried  forward  now 


Caecum,    or    "blind    gut,'*    of 

turkey    affected  with 

hepatitis. 


Liver  of  turkey  affected  with 
hepatitis.      Spots   indi- 
cate   dead    tissue. 


for  more  than  ten  years.  That  farmers  may  recog- 
nize the  disease  when  it  appears  in  their  flocks, 
illustrations  from  photographs  made  by  the  Rhode 
Island  Station,  showing  the  diseased  appearance 
of  the  organs  primarily  concerned  in  the  malady, 
are  given  herewith,  and  the  following  description 
is  quoted  from  the  official  report  of  that  Station 
made  in  1894: 

"The  disease  apparently  first  attacks  the  caecum, 
or  pronged  part  of  the  lower  bowel,  which  event- 


AND  GUINEAS.  349 

tially  becomes  thickened  and  enlarged,  and  often 
badly  ulcerated.  The  liver  is  next  affected,  be- 
comes spotted  and  in  advanced  stages  is  covered 
with  circular  yellowish  areas,  showing  destruction 
of  tissue  within  the  organ.  The  disease  attacks 
young  turkeys  at  all  ages  and  gradually  develops. 
More  turkeys  succumb  to  it  in  the  latter  part  of 
July  and  early  part  of  August,  and  at  the  approach 
of  cold  weather  in  the  fall,  than  at  any  other  time. 
Diseased  birds  seem  to  be  able  to  hold  out  against 
it  during  the  warm,"  dry  weather,  but  are  quickly 
overcome  in  wet,  stormy  weather.  Affected  birds 
usually  have  a  diarrhceal  discharge,  their  feathers 
become  rough,  and  the  head  looks  pinched  and 
turns  dark  or  purple." 

Regarding  these  symptoms,  however,  there  are 
instances  of  birds,  which  when  examined  after  death 
did  not  possess  a  vital  organ  that  was  not  either  al- 
most wasted  away  or  else  "one  mass  of  corruption," 
whose  feathers  to  the  last  were  as  smooth  and 
glossy  as  those  of  an  exhibition  bird,  and  the  head 
presented  no  unnatural  appearance.  In  fact,  so  in- 
sidious is  the  disease  in  its  progress,  especially  in 
older  birds,  that  oftentimes  those  unacquainted  with 
it  would  not  notice  anything  wrong  until  the  very 
last  stages  were  reached.  To  the  careful  observer, 
however,  two  symptoms  are  apparent  sooner  or 
later — these  are  loss  of  appetite  and  diarrhoeal  dis- 
charge. 

Precautions  Necessary. — Most  urgent  is  the  need 
to  warn  all  turkey  raisers  against  allowing  a  bird 
to  remain  in  the  flock  an  instant  after  a  suspicion 
is  aroused  that  it  is  ailing.  Let  all  such  be  strictly 
quarantined  or  killed  immediately.  Let  post  mor- 
tem examinations  be  made  in  every  instance,  and 
the  bodies  of  infected  birds  deeply  buried  or  burned. 
The  remainder  of  the  flock  should  be  removed  at 


35O  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

once  to  tminfected  ground,  and  the  old  run  left 
unoccupied  by  turkeys  for  at  least  two  years.  In 
case  this  cannot  be  done,  the  wisest  plan  will  un- 
doubtedly be  to  dispose  of  the  stock  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible, and  a  few  years  later — when  the  wind  and  the 
rain,  the  frost,  the  sunshine,  and  the  plow  have  ren- 
dered the  soil  pure  once  more — to  begin  again  with 
new  stock,  new  ideas,  new  enthusiasm — to  achieve, 
it  is  to  be  hoped,  complete  success. 

Profit  in  Turkeys. — Those  who  are  in  localities 
where  "blackhead"  is  not  known  will,  beyond  ques- 
tion, find  immense  profit  in  turkeys.  There  is  no 
animal  upon  the  farm  which  returns  such  profits 
as  the  turkey  when 'sold  at  ordinary  prices,  and  we 
may  now  look  for  prices  quite  beyond  the  ordinary. 
If  allowed  to  roam  during  the  day,  as  is  most  con- 
sistent with  their  nature,  besides  gaining  most  of 
their  livelihood  themselves  they  will  destroy  mul- 
titudes of  injurious  insects.  Large  flocks  of  tur- 
keys have  been  kept  by  ranchmen  and  farmers  in 
the  West  for  this  purpose  alone.  This  is  indeed 
the  ideal  way  of  raising  turkeys.  We  do  not  repose 
the  confidence  in  the  turkey  mother  that  she  de- 
serves. She  can,  as  a  usual  thing,  raise  her  turkeys 
far  better  herself  than  we  can  do  it  for  her.  It  is 
doubtless  wise  in  localities  where  there  are  wild 
animals,  like  polecats  and  coyotes,  to  teach  the  old 
turkeys  to  bring  the  young  ones  home  at  night  to 
roost  near  the  house  or  barn,  that  they  may  be  un- 
der the  eye  of  the  good  dog,  which  should  be  the 
faithful  night-watch  on  every  farm  where  poultry 
is  kept.  By  driving  turkeys  to  a  certain  place  at  a 
particular  time  on  several  successive  days,  they  can 
easily  be  taught  to  come  to  this  place  at  this  time 
every  day  for  food.  By  this  plan  the  owner  can  keep 
some  account  of  his  flocks,  and  they  are  not  likely 
to  wander  so  far  away  from  home. 


TURKEYS  AND  GUINEAS.  35! 

Feeding. — -While  much  has  been  said  in  former 
years  about  proper  and  improper  systems  of  feed- 
ing, we  cannot  under  existing  circumstances  rec- 
ommend any  particular  method  of  feeding  turkeys, 
as  we  now  know  that  the  character  of  the  food  given 
has  not  been  the  chief  cause  of  mortality  among 
them,  as  has  so  long  been  maintained.  Perhaps 
the  old  man  was  nearest  right,  after  all,  who,  when 
asked  to  explain  the  reason  of  his  success  with  tur- 
keys, said  he  reckoned  it  was  because  all  the  time 
he  spent  with  them  was  when  he  clubbed  them 
away  from  home.  It  is,  at  any  rate,  far  better  to 
feed  young  turkeys  too  little  than  too  much.  On 
pleasant  days  twice  a  day — morning  and  late  after- 
noon— is  doubtless  often  enough  to  feed  poults 
ranging  with  their  mothers.  On  stormy  days  they 
may  be  fed  again  at  noon  if  they  can  be  found  con- 
veniently. After  they  are  four  or  five  weeks  old,  if 
insects  are  plentiful  and  there  are  clover,  alfalfa, 
or  grain  fields  in  which  to  roam,  the  morning  feed 
may  be  omitted.  As  market  time  approaches,  the 
feeding  periods  may  be  increased  again  to  two  or 
even  three  times  a  day. 

Character  of  Food. — What  has  been  said  on  the 
subject  of  foods  for  chicks  will  apply  to  poults. 
A  variety  of  wholesome  food  and  grains  is  far 
better  than  any  one  food,  however  good  it  may 
be  in  itself,  though  turkeys  having  range  will  over- 
come a  deficiency  of  this  sort  by  procuring  variety 
for  themselves.  Little  turkeys  are  fond  of  bread 
crumbs,  bread  moistened  with  milk,  hard  boiled 
eggs,  or  cottage  cheese,  of  rolled  or  pin-head  oats, 
cracked  wheat  and  corn.  Millet  seed,  an  ex- 
cellent food  for  chicks,  is  said  not  to  agree  with 
poults.  Turkeys  are  not  usually  so  fond  of  corn 
as  of  oats  and  wheat.  The  latter  grains  are  better 
for  growing  turkeys,  but  at  market  time  corn  puts 


352 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


on  the  "gilt  edge,"  and  it  is  well  to  gradually  in- 
crease the  proportion  of  corn  until  during  the  last 
few  weeks  of  their  career  it  forms  a  large  part  of 
the  ration. 

Grit,  etc. — If  for  any  reason  it  is  thought  best 
to  confine  little  turkeys  until  they  are  "strong  on 
their  legs,"  care  must  be  taken  to  supply  plenty 


Pair  of  Mammoth  Bronze  Turkeys. 

of  fresh  water  and  grit,  either  good  sharp  sand  or 
the  commercial  grit.  Turkeys,  old  and  young,  are 
extremely  fond  of  oyster  shells,  and  it  must  be  that 
they  do  not  get  enough  lime  on  range,  in  some  lo- 
calities, or  they  would  not  crave  it.  It  is  well  to 
keep  a  dish  of  this,  as  well  as  one  of  charcoal,  at 


TURKEYS  AND  GUINEAS.  353 

the  feeding  place,  and  water  must  be  provided  if 
there  are  no  springs  or  brooks  in  the  fields  where 
they  are  accustomed  to  go. 

Standard  Varieties. — As  to  variety,  the  Mammoth 
Bronze  is  probably  the  favorite,  though  the  other 
varieties — the  Narragansett,  Buff,  Slate,  White, 
and  Black — each  has  its  admirers  and  supporters. 
That  any  one  of  these  is  less  subject  to  disease 
than  the  others  is  not  thus  far  known.  The 
Bronze  contains  more  wild  blood  than  the 
others  and  is  more  shy  in  its  habits.  All  are  beau- 
tiful birds,  worthy  of  the  post  of  honor  on  the  table 
at  the  annual  feast  a  nation  celebrates  to  express 
its  gratitude  for  past  favors  and  continued  oppor- 
tunity, and  we  must  not,  if  human  intelligence  can 
save  them,  allow  them  to  pass  from  our  midst. 

Guineas. — Few  meats  are  more  delicious  and 
dainty,  even  when  prairie  chicken  and  quail  figure 
in  the  comparison,  than  the  flesh  of  the  young 
guinea.  As  turkeys  become  high  priced  and  the 
flavor  of  these  gamy  birds  is  better  known  and  ap- 
preciated, there  will  be  a  growing  demand  for  them 
and  a  consequently  higher  price.  They  are  less  dif- 
ficult to  raise  than  turkeys,  if  their  habits  are  un- 
derstood and  the  wild  instincts  they  still  retain  are  in 
a  measure  respected.  Some,  it  is  true,  object  to 
their  "noise";  but  to  others  the  cock's  shrill  note 
of  alarm,  or  the  hen's  cheerful  "buckwheat,  buck- 
wheat," is  pleasing  rather  than  otherwise. 

Hatching. — Guineas  are  prolific  layers  in  spring 
and  summer,  and,  while  the  very  first  eggs  are  apt 
to  be  infertile,  there  will  be  several  sittings  of  fer- 
tile eggs  before  Mistress  Guinea  herself  thinks  of 
becoming  broody.  These  may  be  hatched  and  raised 
by  fowls.  Hens  usually  make  good  mothers  for 
little  guineas,  and  the  affection  these  little  things 
show  their  adopted  mothers  would  be  pathetic  if 


354          PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

the  hens  did  not  respond,  which,  be  it  said  to  the 
hens'  credit,  they  nearly  always  do.  Guineas,  when 
hatched  by  hens,  must  be  in  nests  deep  enough  and 
tight  enough  to  prevent  their  getting  out  and  being 
lost.  P'or  several  days  after  they  are  taken  off  the 
nest  they  must  be  confined  in  a  coop  with  a  tight 
yard.  Until  they  learn  to  have  confidence  in  their 
mother  and  in  the  human  being  who  takes  care  of 
them,  they  are  the  shyest  little  creatures  in  the 
world,  and  if  frightened  will  run  away  and 
perish.  After  a  few  days  they  may  be  allowed 
to  go  out  with  their  foster-mother,  if  she  is  a  good, 
quiet,  careful  hen,  and  soon  they  will  be  almost  no 
trouble  at  all.  It  is  better,  when  it  can  be  done,  to 
put  guineas  in  a  different  yard  from  the  chickens 
and  let  them  range  in  a  different  direction.  Some- 
times the  old  guineas  annoy  hens  having  little  guin- 
eas. A  good-sized  stick  will  soon  bring  them  to  an 
understanding  of  the  situation. 

Food. — Dry  food  is  better  for  little  guineas  than 
moist  food,  though  they  like  bread  crumbs  and  hard 
boiled  eggs  sometimes  for  variety.  Mashes  for 
young  guineas  will  very  soon  bring  on  appendicitis. 
Feeds  similar  to  Cypher's  "Chick  Food,"  or  a  col- 
lection of  cracked  grains  and  small  seeds,  such  as 
were  recommended  for  chicks,  are  the  best  foods  for 
these  birds.  We  must  be  careful  not  to  overfeed, 
for  these  are  active  little  creatures,  and  soon  are 
quite  able  to  fill  their  little  craws  with  insects.  Like 
turkeys,  they  earn  the  most  of  their  living,  but  un- 
like turkeys,  inbreeding  and  domestication  have  not 
apparently  detracted  from  a  naturally  vigorous  con- 
stitution. Guineas,  thus  brought  up,  upon  becom- 
ing parents  themselves,  are  usually  so  tame  that 
they  will  bring  their  young  to  the  yard  once  or  twice 
a  day  to  be  fed,  and  very  grateful  the  little 
things  seem  for  a  bit  of  food,  However,  when 


TURKEYS  AND  GUINEAS.  355 

the  parents  are  wild  and  show  a  decided  preference 
to  be  let  alone,  it  is  quite  as  well  to  let  them  have 
their  way.  When  cold  weather  sets  in,  they  will 
bring  their  flocks  to  the  barn-yard,  but  these  will 
never  become  so  friendly  as  guineas  hatched  by 
fowls  or  by  guineas  which  are  themselves  compara- 
tively tame. 


356 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


PART  VII 

HORSES 

CHAPTER  XXXV. 

TYPES     OF     HORSES.— SUMMER     FEEDING 
FOR  WORK. 

While  cattle  have  been  used  in  the  past  as  beasts 
of  burden,  the  horse  is  now  almost  entirely  relied 
upon  for  the  production  of  all  kinds  of  work,  be  it 
drawing  a  loaded  wagon,  an  implement  of  tillage,  a 
road  vehicle,  or  carrying  a  load  upon  the  back.  For 
the  most  economical  performance  of  these  differ- 
ent kinds  of  work,  horses  have  been  bred  and  devel- 
oped along  rather  distinct  and  well  defined  lines.  Just 
as  the  freight  traffic  upon  our  railroads  calls  for  an 
engine  built  for  heavy  hauls  and  the  passenger  service 
calls  for  one  built  for  high  speed — neither  engine  be- 
ing adapted  for  the  work  of  the  other — so  the  draft 
horse  has  been  developed  for  strength  and  the  roadster 
for  speed,  each  being  well  adapted  for  its  particular 
service  only.  Horses,  then,  are  classified  in  a  gen- 
eral way  as  drafters  and  roadsters ;  there  are  many 
gradations  between,  which  for  convenience  are 
grouped  into  one  intermediate  type,  called  the  coach, 
or  general-purpose,  horse. 

The  draft  horse,  which  includes  such  well-known 
breeds  as  the  Percheron,  English  Shire,  Clydesdale 
and  Belgian,  is  built  massively  to  procure  weight 
and  muscular  strength.  Without  weight  a  horse  is 
unable  to  cling  to  the  ground  under  the  strain  of  a 

357 


358  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

heavy  pull,  when  there  is  always  a  tendency  for  the 
feet  to  slip  back.  The  driver  who  transferred  from 
his  overloaded  wagon  one  sack  of  wheat  to  each 
horse's  back  recognized  this  and  profited  by 
it.  A  horse  could  hardly  be  classed  as  a  drafter 
v/ithout  possessing  a  weight  of  at  least  1,500 
pounds.  Stallions  of  the  draft  breeds  frequently 
weigh  as  high  as  2,200  pounds.  In  conformation 
the  draft  horse,  briefly  described,  should  be  broad 
and  deep  in  chest  to  give  strong  lung  power ;  broad 
and  well  muscled  over  back,  loin  and  hips;  rather 
short  and  closely  coupled  in  body  to  give  .strength ; 
and  short  rather  than  long  in  the  legs  to  give  greater 
purchase  on  the  load. 

The  following  score  card  for  draft  horses,  by 
Craig  in  "Judging  Live  Stock,"  gives  the  desirable 
type  in  detail: 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  DRAFT  HORSES- 
GELDING. 

Perfect 
Score. 
General  appearance: 

Weight,  over  1500  pounds.     Score  according  to  age....     4 

Form,   broad,   massive,   low   set,   proportioned 4 

Quality,  bone  clean,  yet  indicating  sufficient  substance; 

tendons   distinct ;    skin  and  hair  fine 4 

Temperament,  energetic,  good  disposition 4 

Head  and  neck: 

Head,  lean,  medium  size 1 

Muzzle,  fine.,  nostrils  large,  lips  thin,  even 1 

Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  large 1 

Forehead,  broad,  full 1 

Ears,  medium  size,  well  carried 1 

Neck,    muscled;    crest    high;    throatlatch    fine,    windpipe 

large 1 

Forequarters : 

Shoulders,  sloping,  smooth,  snug,  extending  into  back....  2 

Arm,  short,  thrown  forward 1 

Forearm,  heavily  muscled,  long,  wide 2 


TYPES  OF  HORSES.  359 

Knees,  wide,  clean  cut,  straight,  deep,  strongly 'sup- 
ported       2 

Cannons,  short,  lean,  wide;  tendons  large,  set  back 2 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong 1 

Pasterns,  sloping,  lengthy,  strong 3 

Feet,  large,  even  size,  straight;  horn  dense;  dark  color; 
sole  concave;  bars  strong;  frog  large,  elastic;  heel 
wide,  high,  one-half  length  of  toe 8 

Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point 
of  the  shoulder  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
knee,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot.  From  the  side,  a  per- 
pendicular line  dropping  from  the  center  of  the  elbow 
joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee  and 

pastern     joints  and  back  of  hoof 4 

Body: 

Chest,  deep,  wide,  large  girth 2 

Eibs,  long,  close,  sprung 2 

Back,  straight,  short,  broad 2 

Loin,  wide,  short,  thick,  straight 2 

Underline,  flank  low 1 

Hindquarters : 

Hips,  smooth,  wide 2 

Croup,  long,  wide,  muscular 2 

Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried 1 

Thighs,  muscular 2 

Quarters,  deep,  heavily  muscled 2 

Gaskins,  or  Lower  Thighs,  wide,  muscled 2 

Hocks,  clean  cut,  wide,  straight 8 

Cannons,  short,  wide;  tendons  large,  set  back 2 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong 1 

Pasterns,  sloping,  strong,  lengthy 2 

Feet,  large,  even  size;  straight;  horn  dense,  dark  color; 
sole  concave ;  bars  strong ;  frog  large,  elastic ;  heel  wide, 

high,  one-half  length  of  toe 6 

Legs.  Viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line  from 
the  point  of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon  the  center  of 
the  hock,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot.  From  the  side,  a 
perpendicular  line  from  the  hip  joint  should  fall  upon 
the  center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskin  in  the  mid- 
dle; and  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of  the  but- 
tock should  run  parallel  with  the  line  of  the  cannon . .  4 
Action : 

Walk,  smooth,  quick,  long,  balanced 6 

Trot,  rapid,  straight,  regular 4 

Total..  ..100 


360  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

The  roadster  type,  including  such  horses  as  the 
American  trotter,  English  Thoroughbred,  Hackney, 
and  Kentucky  saddle  horse,  is  light  in  weight,  not 
to  exceed  1,200  pounds,  narrow  and  slender,  yet  rather 
long  in  both  body  and  legs  to  give  freedom  of  move- 
ment. The  roadster  has  refinement  rather  than  coarse- 
ness in  bone,  and  a  highly  organized  nervous  sys- 
tem to  give  quickness  of  action. 

The  coach  type,  or  general-purpose  horse,  in- 
cluding the  French  and  German  Coach,  Cleve- 


Types  of  Horses — Percheron  (draft)   on  the  left,  German  Coach  in 
the  middle  and  Kentucky  Saddle  Horse  (roadster)  on  the  right. 

land  Bay,  and  a  large  number  of  mixed-bred 
horses,  is  intermediate  in  conformation  as  well 
as  size.  Such  a  horse  is  built  for  moderate 
speed,  combined  with  moderate  strength.  For 
the  farmer  who  has  need  of  but  one  team, 
this  type  is  most  suitable,  because  of  its  adapta- 
bility to  all  kinds  of  farm  work.  For  walking 
on  soft  ground,  the  general-purpose  horse  with  its 
lighter  weight  and  longer  legs  is  much  more  ser- 


TYPES  OF  HORSES.  36! 

viceable  than  the  large,  compact  draft  horse,  fitted 
especially  for  heavy  work  in  cities.  On  large  farms 
a  limited  number  of  special-purpose  draft  horses 
may  be  used  to  advantage.  A  man  can  drive  a  large 
team  as  easily  as  a  smaller  one,  which  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  do  more  work  for  the  number  of  men 
employed,  at  least  when  the  character  of  the  work 


Clydesdales  Ready  for  Work. 

is  such  as  to  require  a  predominance  of  strength  rather 
than  action. 

The  mule  is  popular  in  the  South  because  it  seems 
to  stand  hot  summer  weather  better  than  the  horse. 
Many  Northerners  also  favor  mules  for  farm  work, 
claiming  that  they  require  less  feed  per  unit  of  work, 
are  less  subject  to  disease,  and  require  less  shoeing 
than  horses. 

The  Source  of  Energy. — Plants  during  growth 
absorb  heat  from  the  sun,  which  heat  is  held  in  latent 
form  in  the  compounds  elaborated.  When  these  com- 
pounds are  taken  into  the  animal  body  and  broken 


362         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

apart  by  digestion,  some  of  this  stored  heat  may  be 
transformed  into  energy.  It  is  the  horse  that  is  de- 
pended upon  to  extract  this  stored  up  energy,  making 
it  serviceable  to  man.  The  work  horse,  therefore, 
may  be  likened  to  a  steam  engine  in  which 
such  foods  as  grain  and  hay  serve  as  fuel, 
though  it  differs  from  the  engine  in  that  steam 
is  not  used  as  the  medium  between  heat  and 
energy.  In  the  horse  the  food  is  converted 
into  energy  in  a  way  not  well  understood,  and 
this  energy  manifests  itself  through  the  agency  of 
muscular  contraction  and  expansion.  It  was  formerly 
held  that  the  principal  source  of  energy  is  the  protein 
of  food,  since  protein  goes  to  produce  lean  tissue,  and 
lean  tissue,  or  muscle,  is  instrumental  in  producing 
work.  This  theory  has  recently  been  found  incor- 
rect. It  has  been  disproved  by  the  discovery  that, 
with  severe  muscular  exertion,  there  is  not  a  corre- 
spondingly large  excretion  of  nitrogen  through  the 
kidneys — coming  from  the  disintegration  of  muscu- 
lar tissue  or  protein  food — but,  rather,  that  there  is  a 
large  expiration  of  carbon  dioxide  gas,  making  it  ap- 
parent that  energy  comes  largely  from  a  breaking 
down  of  non-nitrogenous  matter,  such  as  starches, 
fats,  etc.  It  has  been  further  shown  that  energy  may 
be  derived  largely  from  non-nitrogenous  material  by 
the  fact  that  heavy  work  can  be  done  on  rations  in 
which  starches  and  fats  very  largely  predominate. 
Referring  again  to  the  steam  engine,  it  may  be  said 
that  muscular  fiber  in  the  animal  corresponds  to  the 
piston-rod  and  drivewheel  of  the  engine.  The  muscle 
is  built  out  of  protein  in  the  food,  but  it  is  driven  and 
performs  the  work  through  the  action  of  non-nitrog- 
enous compounds,  that  is,  when  only  enough  protein 
is  supplied  in  the  ration  to  meet  the  actual  needs  of 
the  animal  in  repairing  worn-out  muscles  and  in 
maintaining  other  normal  functional  activities  of  the 
body.  Otherwise,  when  protein  i*  **4  *c  excess  oi 


TYPES  OF  HORSES.  363 

actual  requirements,  it  may  produce  work. 

Protein  Requirements  Less  Than  Formerly  Sup- 
posed.— The  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  stipulate 
that  a  i.ooo-pound  horse  at  medium  work  requires  24 
pounds  of  dry  matter  per  day,  of  which  there  must 
be  2  pounds  of  digestible  protein.  For  horses  at 
heavy  work  these  standards  call  for  26  pounds  of  dry 
matter,  of  which  2.5  pounds  must  be  digestible  pro- 
tein. In  this  ration  for  heavy  work,  the  proportion 
of  protein  to  non-nitrogenous  matter  (nutritive  ratio) 
is  i  :6.  In  "A  Digest  of  Recent  Experiments  on 
Horse  Feeding,"  compiled  by  C.  F.  Langworthy  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C., 
there  is  published  the  results  of  an  investigation  to 
determine  the  character  of  rations  commonly  fed 
work  horses  in  the  United  States.  In  the  words  of 
the  author,  "letters  were  addressed  to  express  com- 
panies, cab  companies,  fire  companies,  and  other  or- 
ganizations in  different  cities  of  the  United  States, 
using  large  numbers  of  horses,  requesting  information 
regarding  the  rations  fed."  Information  was  also  se- 
cured regarding  the  average  weight  of  the  horses. 
Similar  values  regarding  horses  fed  by  a  number  of 
cab  companies,  etc.,  in  foreign  countries  were  com- 
piled from  available.published  data.  The  rations  fed 
army  horses  in  the  United  States  and  other  coun- 
tries were  also  learned  by  correspondence  and  by 
compilation  from  various  sources,  and  were  included 
for  purposes  of  comparison,  as  were  also  data  regard- 
ing the  rations  fed  in  a  large  number  of  experiments 
carried  on  at  the  experiment  stations  in  this  coun- 
try, only  those  tests  being  selected  in  which  the 
horses  maintained  their  weight.  The  average  for 
horses  at  moderate  work,  per  1,000  pounds  live 
weight,  was  found  to  be  1.49  pounds  of  digestible 
protein  per  day,  an  amount  considerably  below  the 
Wolff-Lehmann  standards,  but  a  little  larger  than 


364         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

that  given  by  Lavalard,  the  French  investigator. 
For  horses  at  severe  work,  Langworthy  gives  us 
an  average  of  1.12  pounds  of  protein  per  day;  and 
Lavalard,  1.30  pounds  per  day.  The  American  av- 
erage for  horses  at  heavy  work,  as  compiled  by 
Langworthy,  is  made  from  a  more  limited  number 
of  figures,  which  probably  accounts  for  its  being 
smaller  than  the  French  investigator's  average  and 
smaller  than  that  of  the  American  ration  for  horses 
at  medium  work.  Further  investigations  concerning 
requirements  for  work  horses  must  be  made  before 
anything  of  a  positive  nature  concerning  require- 
ments can  be  given,  but  from  the  results  of  recent 
investigations  and  from  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
effectiveness  of  some  of  our  common  American  ra- 
tions fed  to  farm  horses,  it  seems  safe  to  conclude 
that  much  less  protein  than  is  called  for  by  the  old 
standards  is  actually  needed.  It  seems  entirely  con- 
servative to  say  that,  instead  of  2.5  pounds  of  pro- 
tein being  needed  by  a  i,ooo-pound  horse  at  heavy 
work,  2  pounds  will  answer  every  purpose,  giving  a 
nutritive  ration  of  1 : 8,  instead  of  1 :  6.  Certainly  it 
is  more  economical  to  provide  the  minimum  of  pro- 
tein, because  energy  can  be  had  at  less  expense  from 
the  carbohydrates  and  fats  than  from  the  protein 
compounds. 

Feeding  Work  Horses  in  Summer. — During 
spring  and  early  summer,  when  the  farm  horse  is 
pressed  into  hard  and  almost  continuous  service  for 
a  long  period,  it  is  important  that  a  ration  of  the 
greatest  efficiency  should  be  provided;  that  is,  one 
which  keeps  the  horses  in  good  health,  active  and 
willing  in  the  harness,  doing  full  work  without  losing 
weight.  In  providing  a  ration,  due  consideration 
should  also  be  given  to  cost.  Roughage  is  cheaper 
than  grain,  but  a  horse  at  hard  work  is  unable  to  dis- 
pose of  a  large  proportion  of  bulky  feed.  If  consid- 


TYPES  OF  HORSES.  365 

erable  time  and  energy  must  be  expended  in  masticat- 
ing rough  feed,  the  usefulness  of  the  horse  for  work 
is  lessened  thereby.  The  proportion  of  grain  to  rough- 
ness depends  upon  the  severity  and  rapidity  of  the 
work  performed.  Horses  are  not  so  well  adapted  for 
the  consumption  of  a  large  quantity  of  roughness 
as  are  cattle  and  sheep.  The  horse  has  but  one  stom- 
ach and  this  is  rather  limited  in  capacity,  though  the 
smallness  of  the  stomach  is  partially  compensated  for 
by  the  size  of  the  intestine,  which  is  more  capacious  in 
the  horse  than  in  any  other  farm  animal.  A  horse  at 
hard  work  should  not  be  expected  to  consume  more 
roughness  than  grain  by  weight. 

Summer  Rations. — The  ration  in  most  common 
use  in  the  United  States  for  work  horses  during  the 
summer  months  is  timothy  hay  and  a  grain  ration  con- 
sisting entirely  of  oats,  or  with  this  grain  predomi- 
nating. Timothy  hay  is  generally  in  favor  as  a 
roughage  for  horses,  because,  first,  it  is  unusually 
free  from  dust ;  secondly,  it  is  relished  by  horses ;  and, 
thirdly,  it  can  be  grown  successfully  in  nearly  all  lo- 
calities. Oats  are  in  favor  for  the  grain  part  of  the 
ration  because  they  seem  to  agree  well  with  horses, 
giving  them  spirit  for  the  performance  of  their  work. 
While  this  grain  is  not  considered  a  rich  protein 
food,  it  seems  to  contain  enough  protein  to  meet  re- 
quirements, even  when  fed  in  connection  with  a  rough- 
age so  deficient  in  protein  as  timothy  hay.  This  combi- 
nation gives  hardness  to  the  muscle  and  does  not  seem 
to  generate  heat  in  sufficient  quantity  to  cause  undue 
sweating.  A  i,ooo-pound  horse  at  severe  work,  given 
14  pounds  of  oats  and  10  pounds  of  timothy  hay  per 
day,  would  receive  in  digestible  nutrients  1.56  pounds 
of  protein,  .73  pound  fat,  10.96  pounds  carbohydrates 
— a  nutritive  ration  of  i :  8.  This  gives  protein 
much  below  Wolff-Lehmann  requirements,  with  l 
correspondingly  wider  nutritive  ratio,  but  it  is  a  ra- 


366          PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

tion  which  has  been  thoroughly  tested  in  America 
and  apparently  furnishes  all  the  protein  needed.  A 
horse  weighing  1,200  pounds,  at  severe  work  would 
need  16  pounds  of  oats  and  12  pounds  of  hay  per 
day.  With  more  moderate  work  the  oats  should  be 
diminished  somewhat  and  the  hay  increased.  With 
lighter  (but  not  more  active)  work,  more  hay  can 
be  consumed,  because  more  energy  will  be  available 
for  the  mastication  and  digestion  of  bulky  feed. 
From  the  results  of  practical  experience  it  would 
seem  that  a  grain  ration  consisting  of  two-thirds 
oats  and  one-third  corn  is  even  more  satisfactory 
than  oats  alone.  With  such  a  mixture  somewhat 
less  grain  is  required,  and  at  the  usual  prices  for 
corn  this  mixture  is  more  economical  than  oats. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  bran  should  always  be  fed  with 
oats  and  timothy  hay  to  regulate  the  bowels  and 
tone  the  digestive  system  generally. 

Feeding  Without  Oats. — It  has  formerly  been 
supposed  that  no  other  grains  could  be  successfully 
substituted  for  oats.  Recent  tests  at  some  of  our  ex- 
periment stations  would  indicate  that  combinations  of 
other  foods  which  supply  the  nutrients,  and  at  the 
same  time  possess  sufficient  bulk,  give  quite  as  satis- 
factory results  as  oats.  At  the  New  Hampshire  Sta- 
tion equal  parts  of  bran  and  corn  proved  to  be  as 
good'  as  corn  and  oats,  although  the  writer  of  the 
bulletin  states  that  a  considerable  quantity  of  bran 
makes  animals  sweat  more  freely.  It  is  further  stated 
that  2  pounds  each  of  bran  and  oil  meal  with  corn 
would  be  more  satisfactory  than  equal  parts  of  bran 
and  corn.  At  the  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station 
it  was  found  that  equal  parts  of  bran  and  shorts  main- 
tained the  weight  of  work  horses  as  well  as  oats. 
But  bran  and  shorts  are  often  high  in  price,  and  this 
combination  might  be  no  more  economical  than 
oats. 


TYPES  OF  HORSES.  367 

Nine  pounds  of  corn  mixed  with  2  pounds  of  old 
process  oil  meal  furnish  in  digestible  nutrients  1,29 
pounds  protein,  6.64  pounds  carbohydrates  and  .52 
pound  of  fat.  Fourteen  pounds  of  oats  furnish  in 
digestible  nutrients  1.28  pounds  of  protein,  6.62  pounds 
carbohydrates  and  .58  pound  fat.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  1 1  pounds  mixture  of  corn  and  oil  meal  fur- 
nishes almost  identically  the  same  digestible  nutrients 
as  the  14  pounds  of  oats.  With  corn  worth  ?oc  per 
hundred  (3Qc  per  bushel),  oats  QOC  per  hundred  (28c 
per  bushel  and  oil  meal  $30  per  ton,  the  n  pounds 
of  corn  and  oil  meal  will  cost  $0.093,  while  the  14 
pounds  of  oats  will  cost  $0.126.  Why  the  corn  mix- 
ture should  not  be  just  as  good  as  the  oats  it  would 
be  difficult  to  tell.  It  is  probable  that  the  presence  of 
the  oat  hulls,  making  the  oat  ration  lighter  on  the 
stomach,  would  lessen  any  tendency  toward  indiges- 
tion. A  little  cut  hay,  however,  mixed  with  corn 
and  oil  meal  might  do  something  toward  correcting 
that  fault,  or  the  substitution  of  2  pounds  of  bran 
for  I  pound  of  oil  meal.  Nevertheless,  while  corn  is 
used  extensively  in  the  South  for  work  mules,  it  is 
not  looked  upon  with  favor  for  heavy  draft  horses 
in  summer,  because  it  makes  them  "logy,"  free  to 
perspire  and  often  causes  skin  diseases.  Oats  have 
always  been  in  favor,  partly  because  they  are  handy 
to  feed,  and  partly  because  they  are  sufficiently 
bulky  to  make  reckless  feeding  less  dangerous.  But 
with  oats  high  in  price,  as  they  often  are,  the  farmer 
who  keeps  several  work  horses  might  do  well  to 
study  other  mixtures  of  equal  efficiency  and  lower 
cost. 


CHAPTER  XXXVL 

WINTER  RATIONS  FOR  WORK  HORSES. 

More  Carbonaceous  Food  Needed  in  Winter. — 
Most  farmers  have  less  work  for  horses  in  winter  than 
in  summer.  It  is  an  excellent  plan,  and  much  more 
economical,  to  rough  through  some  of  the  older  horses 
which  are  not  needed  for  winter  work.  Those  reserved 
for  work  in  winter  should  have  good  care  and  should 
be  fed  according  to  the  work  performed.  During 
cold  weather,  when  more  feed  goes  to  furnish  heat  for 
the  body,  it  stands  to  reason  that  a  horse  needs  a 
larger  proportion  of  heat-making  food.  Equal  parts 
of  corn  and  oats  by  weight  would  be  more  satisfactory 
and  ordinarily  cheaper  than  a  larger  proportion  of  oats. 

Barley  is  sometimes  fed  as  a  substitute  for  corn 
where  the  latter  is  less  grown.  Half  oats  and  half  bar- 
ley during  summer,  and  three  parts  of  barley  to  one 
of  oats  by  weight  during  cold  weather,  might  be  used, 
though  horses  relish  barley  less  than  corn  or  oats,  and 
it  is  apt  to  produce  digestive  disorders  unless  boiled. 
At  the  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station  barley  was 
fed  in  comparison  with  oats  to  both  horses  and  mules. 
The  roughage  consisted  of  timothy  hay.  The  experi- 
menter says:  "This  trial  indicates  that  horses  when 
taxed  to  the  limit  by  hard  work,  cannot  be  supported 
upon  barley  quite  so  well  as  upon  oats  and  that  it  is 
worth  slightly  less  per  pound  than  oats  with  stock 
which  is  given  a  medium  amount  of  work.  It  in- 
dicates, further,  that  mules  take  less  kindly  to  barley 
than  do  horses,  and  that  horses  which  are  inclined  to 
be  'dainty'  eaters,  will  not  eat  barley  so  readily  as 
oats." 

368 


WINTER  RATIONS  FOR   WORK   HORSES.  369 

Kafir  corn  has  been  tested  at  the  Oklahoma  Ex- 
periment Station,  where  it  was  found  entirely  sat- 
isfactory for  work  horses,  being  both  palatable  and 
nutritious,  but  somewhat  below  corn  in  feeding 
value.  It  is  a  common  practice,  in  sections  where 
Kafir  corn  is  grown,  to  feed  the  unthrashed  heads, 
although  it  is  thought  better  results  can  be  secured 
by  grinding  the  seeds,  owing  to  their  hard,  flinty 
character. 

Molasses  for  Horses. — With  the  growth  of  the 
sugar  industry  in  America  much  interest  is  being 
manifested  in  the  feeding  value  of  molasses,  which 
product  is  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar 
from  the  beet  and  sugar  from  cane.  In  the  vi- 
cinity of  sugar  factories,  molasses  can  be  purchased 
at  a  very  nominal  sum,  sometimes  as  low  as  $1.00 
per  ton.  From  the  fact  that  molasses  is  rich  in  car- 
bohydrates, it  would  seem  that  it  is  especially  suited 
for  the  production  of  work.  From  the  further  fact 
that  horses  are  extremely  fond  of  sweets,  it  is  not 
difficult  to  understand  why  molasses  mixed  with 
dry  foods  adds  materially  to  the  palatability  of  such 
foods. 

Molasses  is  fed  by  sprinkling  it  upon  dry  feed 
after  it  has  been  diluted  somewhat  with  water,  or 
by  mixing  it  with  some  absorbent,  as  peat  dust,  or 
a  material  rich  in  nitrogen,  as  dried  blood.  The 
"Agricultural  Gazette"  of  New  South  Wales  de- 
scribes the  feeding  of  cane  mo'lasses  to  400  work 
horses  at  a  sugar  plantation  in  the  Fiji  Islands.  It 
is  stated  that  "fifteen  pounds  can  be  given  to  a 
1,270-pound  working  horse  with  advantage  to  the 
health  of  the  animal  and  to  the  efficiency  of  its  work. 
It  produces  no  undue  fattening,  softness,  nor  injury 
to  the  wind.  The  high  proportion  of  salts  in  it  has 
no  injurious  effect.  An  albuminoid  ratio  as  low  as 
1:11.8  has  proved  highly  suitable  for  heavy,  con- 


37°         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

tinuous  work  when  a  sufficient  quantity  of  digesti- 
ble matter  is  given."  The  ration  fed  was  15  pounds 
of  molasses,  4  pounds  of  corn,  3  pounds  of  bran,  in 
addition  to  sugar-cane  tops.  Bran  was  found  valu- 
able as  a  corrective  for  constipation  produced  by  the 
molasses. 

Mr.  G.  H.  Berns  in  the  "American  Veterinary  Re- 
view" gives  an  interesting  report  of  the  feeding  of 
molasses  to  100  horses  at  heavy  work,  averaging 
1,700  pounds  in  weight.  These  horses  were  each 
fed  night  and  morning  one  quart  of  molasses  diluted 
with  three  quarts  of  water  mixed  with  six  pounds 
of  cut  hay,  1.5  pounds  of  corn  meal  and  2.5  quarts 
of  coarse  bran.  The  noon  meal  consisted  of  five 
quarts  of  dry  oats  and  the  night  meal  was  rein- 
forced by  eleven  pounds  of  uncut  hay.  This  ration 
proved  to  be  remarkably  successful  in  keeping  the 
horses  in  excellent  health,  whereas  they  had  for- 
merly been  troubled  to  some  extent  with  spasmodic 
colic.  The  horses  not  only  performed  heavy  work 
but  gained  in  weight  during  the  trial.  Mr.  Berns 
says:  "molasses  of  a  good  quality  is  a  most  nutri- 
tious food  for  horses,  easily  digested  and  assimi- 
lated, and  will  in  many  cases  correct  faulty  digestive 
process;  and  horses  will  do  fully  as  much  work 
and  at  the  same  time  remain,  as  a  rule,  in  much 
better  condition  than  animals  fed  on  dry  food,  while 
the  cost  of  feeding  is  reduced  from  25  to  33  per 
cent."  He  calculates  one  quart  of  molasses  the 
equivalent  of  three  to  four  quarts  of  oats.  Other 
experiments,  both  abroad  and  in  our  own  country, 
give  further  evidence  that  molasses  is  a  valuable 
food  for  both  work  horses  and  driving  horses. 

Cottonseed  meal  has  been  fed  in  tests  to  work 
horses  at  the  North  Carolina,  New  Hampshire  and 
Louisiana  Experiment  Stations.  At  the  former 
Station  as  high  as  two  pounds  per  day  were  fed  to 


WINTER   RATIONS  FOR   WORK    HORSES.  37! 

each  horse  with  satisfactory  results.  When  this 
amount  was  increased  to  3.5  pounds,  the  results 
were  less  favorable.  At  the  New  Hampshire  Sta- 
tion cottonseed  meal  proved  less  satisfactory  than 
oil  meal  as  a  part  of  the  grain  ration.  From  one  to 
two  pounds  per  day  were  fed  to  mules  successfully 
at  the  Louisiana  Station,  which  Station  urges  the 
importance  of  having  the  meal  a  good  quality. 

Prairie  hay,  as  has  been  mentioned,  is  very  simi- 
lar in  composition  to  timothy  hay,  both  being  rich 
in  carbohydrates.  It  is  entirely  safe  to  feed  and  is 
in  popular  favor  in  the  West  for  horses.  Like  timo- 
thy, it  has  a  small  leaf  surface,  therefore  curing 
easily  and  being  comparatively  free  from  dust. 

Cane,  or  sorghum  hay,  when  properly  cured  is  con- 
sidered a  very  good  feed  for  horses.  In  the  drier 
climates,  where  this  fodder  can  be  more  success- 
fully grown  than  most  other  fodders,  its  use  is  very 
common.  It  is  more  relished  when  sown  rather 
thickly  to  make  the  stems  less  coarse.  More  nutri- 
ents can  be  obtained  per  acre  when  sorghum  is  al- 
lowed to  become  fairly  ripe. 

Kafir  corn  fodder  is  similar  to  sorghum,  but  is 
perhaps  less  relished,  because  of  the  presence  of 
sugar  in  the  latter. 

Cornstalks  cured  in  the  shock  are  sometimes  fed 
to  work  horses  as  a  substitute  for  timothy  hay. 
At  the  New  Hampshire  Experiment  Station  it  was 
found  that  this  material  is  quite  as  valuable,  pound 
for  pound,  as  timothy,  when  fed  either  with  corn 
and  bran,  or  with  corn  and  oats.  The  corn  stover 
cost  only  one-third  as  much  as  the  timothy  hay,  and 
therefore  proved  much  more  economical.  For  horses 
at  moderate  work  the  stalks  may  be  fed  uncut.  For 
severe  work  there  would  be  some  advantage  in 
shredding  the  stalks  to  make  the  fodder  more  easily 
masticated.  Cornstalks  are  produced  in  abundance 


372  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

on  all  farms  in  the  corn  belt,  and  the  substitution 
of  this  cheap  feed  for  at  least  a  part  of  the  higher 
priced  timothy  or  prairie  hay  is  a  matter  worthy 
of  the  consideration  of  every  farmer.  Emphasis  is 
again  made  upon  the  necessity  of  cutting  the  corn 
as  soon  as  the  ears  harden  and  before  the  leaves  and 
stalk  become  dead. 

Millet  Hay  Not  a  Safe  Feed  for  Horses.— As 
reported  by  the  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station, 
where  a  thorough  investigation  was  made,  "Millet 
when  used  entirely  as  a  coarse  feed  is  injurious  to 
horses :  first,  in  producing  an  increased  action  of 
the  kidneys;  secondly,  in  causing  lameness  and  a 
swelling  of  the  joints;  thirdly,  in  producing  an  in- 
fusion of  blood  into  the  joints ;  fourthly,  in  destroy- 
ing the  texture  of  the  bone,  rendering  it  softer  and 
less  tenacious  so  that  traction  causes  the  ligaments 
and  muscles  to  be  torn  loose."  This  seems  to  agree 
with  the  experience  of  most  farmers  who  have  fed 
millet  in  liberal  quantity  to  horses. 

Straw  is  sometimes  made  the  roughage  part  of 
the  ration  for  horses.  While  it  has  some  value,  it  is 
nevertheless  true  that  much  more  grain  is  needed 
when  hay  is  replaced  by  straw.  Idle  work  horses 
in  winter  no  doubt  can  utilize  some  straw,  but  this 
material  is  so  largely  indigestible  it  is  requiring  too 
much  of  a  horse  to  force  him  to  gain  a  large  part  of 
his, sustenance  from  it.  Oat  straw  is  considerably 
richer  in  nutrients  than  wheat  straw  and  is  more 
relished  by  all  classes  of  animals. 

Oat  hay,  which  has  been  cut  while  the  seeds  are 
in  the  dough  and  cured  as  hay,  is  found  very  satis- 
factory for  horses,  especially  in  winter,  when  the 
work  may  be  light  and  the  horse  has  more  time  for 
mastication.  If  a  part  of  the  oats  can  be  fed  tm- 
thrashed,  the  cost  is  lessened.  Oats  that  have  blown 
down  and  become  lodged  just  before  time  for  cut- 


WINTER  RATIONS  FOR  WORK   HORSES.  373 

ting  with  the  binder  may  be  cut  with  a  mower  and 
handled  to  advantage  as  hay. 

Clover  hay  has  not  been  held  in  high  favor  as  a 
roughage  for  horses  for  two  principal  reasons.  First, 
clover  with  its  large  leaf  surface  very  often  goes 
in  the  mow  or  stack  so  moist  that  fermentation, 
which  is  caused  by  the  multiplication  of  bacteria, 
takes  place.  During  this  oxidation,  or  slow  burning 
process,  particles  of  blackened,  partially  carbonized 
leaves  are  produced,  which  finely-divided  matter 
rises  in  the  air  in  clouds  of  dust  whenever  the  hay  is 
moved.  Some  of  it  enters  the  nostrils  of  the  horse 
and  is  drawn  into  the  lung  cells,  there  setting  up  an 
irritation  which  often  brings  on  a  disease  known  as 
heaves.  Secondly,  there  is  a  prevalent  notion  among 
horsemen,  well  founded  or  otherwise,  that  clover 
hay  produces  a  softer  flesh,  and  a  horse  so  fed 
sweats  more  freely  than  one  fed  timothy. 

Bright,  well-cured  clover  should  be  of  considera- 
ble value  for  the  work  horse,  but  in  feeding  this 
hay  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  much  richer 
in  protein  than  the  fodders  and  hay  plants  already 
described,  which  makes  it  obvious  that  the  grain 
ration  should  be  correspondingly  more  starchy. 
Clover  when  fed  with  corn  alone  should  give  a  good 
balance  of  nutrients  for  the  work  animal.  Could  it 
be  fed  in  a  moistened  condition  to  keep  down  any 
dust,  it  would  doubtless  be  a  satisfactory  ration — 
in  fact,  a  better  ration  than  timothy  and  corn  if  the 
hay  is  fed  in  a  limited  quantity. 

Alfalfa,  which  belongs  to  the  same  family  as 
clover,  meets  with  similar  objection.  It  is  likely  to 
be  dusty,  especially  when  grown  in  sections  of  con- 
siderable rainfall.  It  is  also  a  well  known  fact  that 
alfalfa  makes  animals  drink  more  water,  increasing 
the  action  of  the  kidneys.  Whether  or  not  this  is 
in  any  way  detrimental  to  the  health  of  the  work 


374         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

horse  has  not  been  determined.  There  is,  also,  a 
prejudice  against  it  because  it  has  a  cathartic  effect, 
more  noticeable  when  horses  are  driven  at  a  trot 
before  the  wagon.  It  is  also  true  that  horses  fed 
alfalfa  sweat  more  freely  than  horses  fed  timothy  or 
prairie  hay. 

A  recent  bulletin,  however,  issued  by  the  Utah 
Station  shows  very  favorable  results  for  alfalfa 
when  fed  to  work  horses.  One  horse  in  each  of  two 
draft  teams  was  fed  timothy  hay  and  the  other 
horse  in  each  team  was  fed  alfalfa,  all  for  a  period 
of  three  months,  from  January  to  April.  The  grain 
ration  consisted  of  bran  and  shorts  in  every  case. 
The  horses  weighed  about  1,400  pounds  each.  Dur- 
ing this  first  period  one  horse  on  timothy  lost  47 
pounds  and  the  other  77  pounds.  One  horse  on  al- 
falfa gained  4  pounds  and  the  other  lost  8  pounds. 
During  the  second  period,  from  April  until  June, 
those  which  had  been  fed  timothy  were  given  alfalfa 
and  those  fed  alfalfa  were  given  timothy.  One 
horse  gained  5  pounds  on  timothy  and  the  other 
lost  65  pounds.  One  horse  on  alfalfa  gained  50 
pounds  and  the  other  gained  25  pounds.  The  feeds 
were  again  reversed  during  each  of  two  later  pe- 
riods with  results  in  both  favoring  alfalfa.  During 
most  of  the  time  the  horses  were  at  moderate  work. 

The  experiment  shows  strongly  in  favor  of  alfalfa 
as  compared  with  timothy.  The  heavy  losses  on 
timothy  may  be  partially  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that  during  these  experiments  something  over  twice 
as  much  hay  as  grain  was  fed.  This  was  a  large 
proportion  of  hay  to  grain  for  work  horses.  Timo- 
thy is  masticated  and  digested  with  more  difficulty 
than  alfalfa,  which  gives  the  latter  some  advantage 
in  heavy  hay  feeding.  However,  the  results  of  this 
experiment  would  tend  to  disprove  the  theory  that 
alfalfa  can  not  be  fed  to  work  horses  successful Iv. 


WINTER  RATIONS  FOR   WORK   HORSES.  375 

Those  who  have  fed  alfalfa  are  of  the  opinion, 
generally,  that  alfalfa  if  fed  to  work  horses  should 
be  limited  in  quantity.  A  larger  proportion  of  corn 
should  be  fed  when  alfalfa  is  used,  since  alfalfa  it- 
self is  rich  in  protein  and  a  protein  grain  mixture 
would  not  be  needed.  It  is  better  economy  to  fur- 
nish only  enough  protein  to  meet  actual  require- 
ments, because  the  carbohydrates  are  a  cheaper 
source  of  energy.  Alfalfa  is  wonderfully  relished 
by  horses,  which  makes  it  all  the  more  necessary  to 
guard  against  feeding  an  oversupply. 

Wintering  Idle  Farm  Horses. — Upon  the  average 
farm  the  brunt  of  work  comes  during  the  growing 
season.  Rather  than  keep  all  work  horses  in  more 
or  less  confinement  during  the  winter  months,  con- 
tinuing the  liberal  use  of  grain,  it  is  advisable  to 
rough  through  those  not  needed.  Such  horses 
should  be  given  a  protected  yard  and  shed  before 
cold  weather  sets  in.  As  winter  comes  on,  these 
horses  grow  a  heavy  coat  of  hair,  which  gives  them 
excellent  protection.  They  should  be  given  all  the 
hay,  cornstalks,  sorghum  or  oat  stra"w  they  will  con- 
sume, under  which  circumstances  they  will  require 
but  little  or  no  grain.  Where  alfalfa  and  clover  are 
fed  to  cattle  and  sheep  on  full  feed  there  are  al- 
ways refuse  stems.  These  can  be  fed  to  such  horses 
to  excellent  advantage.  Alfalfa  and  clover,  after 
having  had  some  of  the  leaves  or  chaff  first  shaken 
out  for  pig  feeding,  are  relished  by  horses.  If  the 
shed  is  kept  well  bedded,  horses  can  be  very  com- 
fortably wintered  in  this  way  at  much  less  expense 
than  by  stabling.  Light  grain  feeding,  together 
with  exercise,  should  begin  six  weeks  before  the 
spring  work  is  started,  to  put  the  horses  in  condition 
for  work. 

Feeding  the  Driving  Horse. — In  feeding  the  driv- 
ing horse  the  same  general  plan  that  has  been  sug- 


376  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

gested  for  work  horses  should  be  followed.  The 
driver  should  not  have  such  laxative  foods  as  al- 
falfa, nor  very  much  bran,  and  should  also  be  given  a 
somewhat  smaller  proportion  of  roughage.  The 
driving  horse  will  not  stand  heavy  corn  feeding. 

Feeding  the  Brood  Mare. — There  has  been  for 
some  time  a  good  demand  for  draft  and 
general-purpose  horses  for  both  city  and  farm 
work.  Many  farmers  are  situated  so  they  may 
raise  a  team  of  colts  each  year,  thereby  add- 
ing materially  to  their  annual  revenues  without 
seriously  interfering  with  farm  operations.  A  team 
of  mares  in  foal  can  be  worked  until  the  day  of  foal- 
ing, if  the  work  is  not  unusually  severe  and  the 
driver  is  careful.  In  fact,  moderate  exercise  is  nec- 
essary for  the  mare  in  foal.  Such  a  mare  should  be 
fed  much  as  has  been  suggested  for  work  horses, 
with  perhaps  the  addition  of  somewhat  more  pro- 
tein food  like  bran  or  a  little  oil  meal,  as  foods  rich 
in  protein  and  mineral  matter  are  especially  valu- 
able for  mares  carrying  young.  Clover  or  alfalfa 
hay,  however,  frequently  causes  abortion  in  work 
mares. 

Care  of  the  Mare. — After  foaling,  the  mare  should 
be  given  several  days  of  rest,  not  only  to  enable  her 
to  recover  her  strength,  but  to  give  the  young  colt 
the  proper  start.  During  the  first  few  days  of  recu- 
peration a  hot  bran  mash  fed  once  a  day  has  both  a 
cooling  and  a  laxative  effect,  which  is  extremely  ben- 
eficial. Some  farmers  make  a  practice  of  permitting 
the  foal  to  go  to  the  field  with  the  team,  while  others 
prefer  to  keep  the  colt  in  the  barn.  During  the  first 
few  weeks  it  is  better  for  the  colt  to  be  given  nour- 
ishment oftener  than  three  times  a  day.  For  this 
reason  he  is  perhaps  better  off  in  the  field  with  the 
team  if  no  serious  inconvenience  is  caused.  When  a 
little  older  such  a  colt  may  be  kept  in  the  barn  and 


WINTER  RATIONS  FOR   WORK   HORSES.  377 

given  nourishment  when  the  mare  comes  from 
work.  Two  colts  are  company  for  each  other,  which 
makes  them  more  contented  both  in  the  field  and 
when  confined  together  in  the  stable.  Young  colts 
should  be  given  oats  rather  liberally,  with  a  lit- 
tle bran  and  shelled  corn  as  early  as  they  can  be 
taught  to  eat.  If  eating  well  at  the  age  of  five 
months,  they  can  be  weaned  from  the  dam  without 
as  much  shrinking  as  when  unaccustomed  to  grain. 

Rearing  the  Weanling. — Growing  colts  should 
have  more  protein  food  than  was  recommended  for 
work  horses.  During  the  summer,  clover,  alfalfa  or 
bluegrass  pastures  are  excellent.  During  the  winter 
considerable  clover  or  alfalfa  can  also  be  fed  if  it 
is  not  too  dusty.  If  other  forms  of  roughage  than 
these  are  used,  bran  or  some  other  protein  foods 
must  be  fed  along  with  oats.  The  colt  should  be 
fed  in  a  way  that  will  bring  about  the  best  develop- 
ment at  a  moderate  cost.  Rough  feed  should  be  fed 
generously,  with  sufficient  grain  to  keep  the  colt  in 
good  growing  condition. 

Grinding  grain  for  horses  is  not  economical  un- 
less a  horse  has  poor  teeth.  Experiments  tend  to 
show  that  results  obtained  by  grinding  grain  are  not 
enough  better  to  pay  for  the  cost  of  grinding.  As 
has  already  been  stated,  the  animal  can  use  energy 
more  economically  than  the  steam  engine,  because 
of  a  less  waste  of  power.  This  same  principle  un- 
doubtedly holds  true  in  connection  with  cutting  hay 
or  shredding  fodder.  The  Utah  Station  reports  a 
falling  off  in  weight  when  horses  were  fed  cut  timo- 
thy hay,  caused  by  the  sharp  ends.  Clover  and  al- 
falfa, cut,  gave  slightly  better  results  than  uncut 
hay,  but  not  enough  better  to  pay  for  cutting. 

Watering  horses  before  feeding  and  after  feeding 
have  been  tested  to  note  possible  differences  in  re- 
sults. The  experimenter  concludes  that  "horses 


PROFITABLE  STOCK   FEEDING. 

should  be  watered  both  before  and  after  eating." 

Salt  in  limited  quantity  should  be  placed  above 
the  manger  often  enough  to  furnish  the  horse  with 
what  the  system  needs.  It  is  perhaps  better  not  to 
have  it  within  reach  at  all  times,  as  some  horses 
will  eat  to  excess. 

Bedding  should  always  be  used  liberally,  A 
horse  at  hard  work  needs  rest  at  night,  and  much 
more  rest  is  had  when  the  horse  is  given  a  good  bed 
of  straw.  It  should  not  be  permitted  to  become 
foul,  as  such  things  not  only  lessen  the  comfort  of 
the  animal  but  promote  disease. 

Shelter  in  the  winter  time  should  be  warm  enough 
to  keep  work  horses  comfortable  while  at  rest.  From 
the  viewpoint  of  feeding,  a  warm  barn  is  most 
economical.  This  does  not  mean  that  horses  should 
be  kept  too  warm  for  comfort  or  should  be  deprived 
of  fresh  air,  the  'latter  being  especially  important. 
The  lack  of  blankets  in  winter  for  covering  horses 
standing  in  the  cold  is  not  only  cruel  but  costly. 

Shelter  in  summer  is  primarily  to  keep  horses  out 
of  the  hot  sun's  rays  while  at  rest.  A  secondary  value 
of  shelter  in  late  summer  is  protection  from  flies. 
Zuntz  found  that  a  horse  excreted  10  per  cent  more 
carbon  dioxide  while  righting  flies,  and  therefore 
used  correspondingly  more  food  when  thus  irri- 
tated. Horses  have  little  natural  protection  from 
flies,  and  nets  pay  for  themselves  in  a  short  time 
by  an  actual  saving  of  food.  Nor  is  it  unreason- 
able to  think  that  netting  on  the  windows  and  doors  of 
stables  would  not  more  than  pay  for  the  trouble  and 
material.  Stalls  should  be  darkened  when  flies  are 
troublesome. 

Quietness  in  Handling  Horses. — The  horse  is  a 
most  sensitive  animal,  some  individuals  being 
much  more  sensitive  than  others.  Striking  them  or 
shouting  commands  is  a  most  contemptible  practice, 


•  WINTER  RATIONS  FOR  WORK   HORSES.  379 

not  only  because  it  indicates  a  complete  lack  of  ap- 
preciation for  so  noble  a  beast,  but  also  because  it  de- 
stroys nervous  energy  in  the  horse,  making  him  a  less 
economical  producer  than  if  he  were  protected 
at  all  times  from  these  nervous  shocks.  It  is  a  re- 
flection upon  our  humanity,  but  it  is  nevertheless 
true,  that  in  America  more  horses  are  made  short- 
lived by  ill-treatment  and  excessive  work  than  by 
poor  feeding. 


APPENDIX. 

METHODS  OF  GROWING  THE  LEGUMINOUS 

CROPS,  COWPEAS,  SOY  BEANS  AND 

ALFALFA. 

COWPEAS. 
BY  D.  H.  OTIS. 

Leguminous  crops  play  a  very  important  part  in 
successful  farming,  as  they  furnish  grain  and  forage 
richer  in  protein  than  other  crops,  and  at  the  same 
time  are  taking  free  nitrogen  from  the  air  through 
their  root  tubercles,  and  leaving  it  in  the  soil  as  avail- 
able plant  food.  Among  the  leguminous  plants  of  spe- 
cial value  to  the  farmer,  cowpeas  play  an  important 
part,  particularly  in  the  Southern  states ;  but  their  suc- 
cessful production  is  gradually  finding  a  more  north- 
ern latitude.  Being  an  annual  and  producing  but  one 
crop  in  a  season,  they  are  not  now  even  to  be  com- 
pared with  alfalfa,  which  is  a  perennial  and  produces 
from  three  to  four  crops  annually.  Cowpeas  are  more 
adapted  to  fill  the  niche  where  alfalfa  is  not  success- 
fully grown,  or  to  be  used  as  a  catch  crop  after  wheat 
or  oats.  Cowpeas  will  mature  a  hay  crop  in  from 
sixty  to  seventy  days,  and  a  seed  crop  in  eighty  to 
ninety  days. 

Planting. — Being  a  warm  weather  crop,  cowpeas 
should  not  be  planted  until  the  ground  is  thor- 
oughly warmed,  preferably  after  corn  planting  or  even 
later.  Better  results  are  usually  obtained  by  planting 
in  drills  about  30  inches  apart,  and  cultivating  as  for 
corn.  If  land  is  scarce  they  may  be  planted  20  inches 
apart,  and  cultivated  by  removing  all  but  one  shovel 

381 


382         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

from  the  cultivator.  This  method  will  produce  a  little 
larger  yield  per  acre,  but  requires  more  pains  in  cul- 
tivating. The  peas  may  be  seeded  with  an  ordinary 
grain  drill  by  closing  some  of  the  holes  so  as  to  plant 
the  proper  distance  apart ;  or  they  may  be  planted  with 
a  check  row  planter  by  removing  the  check  row  wire 
and  substituting  the  chain  so  as  to  drill  them  instead  of 
check-rowing  them.  It  usually  requires  the  plates 
with  the  largest  holes,  and  the  machine  so  adjusted  as 
to  seed  as  fast  as  possible.  If  it  is  desired  to  plant 
thick,  the  planter  may  go  over  the  ground  a  second 
time,  planting  between  the  rows  already  planted. 
Cowpeas  have  also  been  planted  successfully  with  the 
lister.  When  planted  far  enough  apart  to  cultivate, 
one-half  bushel  of  seed  per  acre  is  sufficient.  When 
planted  half  the  distance  of  corn  rows,  it  will  re- 
quire about  one  bushel  per  acre. 

Varieties. — The  bush  varieties  are  earlier  in 
maturing  than  the  trailing  varieties,  and  they  are 
also  more  easily  harvested.  For  the  latitude  of  Kan- 
sas and  Nebraska,  the  "Whip-poor-will"  and  "Clay" 
are  probably  the  best  varieties.  Properly  planted  in 
a  good  soil,  similar  to  best  corn  ground,  in  which 
there  is  sufficient  moisture  to  sprout  the  seed,  cow- 
peas  will  continue  to  thrive,  even  though  the 
weather  is  dry. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — The  harvesting  of  cow- 
peas  for  hay,  which  should  be  done  when  the  pods  are 
well  formed  and  the  lower  leaves  begin  to  turn  yel- 
low, may  be  done  with  a  mowing  machine,  or,  better, 
with  a  bean  harvester,  the  latter  being  a  machine  for 
cutting  the  roots  just  below  the  surface  and  throw- 
ing two  rows  together  to  form  a  windrow.  The  mow- 
ing machine  does  not  cut  low  enough  to  get  all  the 
leaves,  and,  of  course,  does  not  place  the  crop  in  wind- 
rows. After  remaining  in  windrows  from  24  to  36 
hours,  depending  on  the  weather,  this  crop  should  be 


APPENDIX.  383 

put  into  small  narrow  cocks,  and  if  possible  covered 
with  hay  caps  or  with  canvas,  the  purpose  being  to 
keep  the  leaves  from  becoming  brittle  and  falling 
off  before  the  stems  are  cured.  When  cured,  which 
will  probably  require  several  days,  it  should  be 
hauled  to  the  mow  or  stack. 

Harvesting  for  Seed. — The  growing  of  cowpeas 
for  seed  is  a  rather  laborious  process,  as  the  pods 
ripen  at  different  intervals  and  it  makes  the  harvest- 
ing at  any  onetime  impossible ;  consequently  the  pods 
have  to  be  gathered  by  hand  picking.  The  pods  may 
be  threshed  with  a  common  wheat  thresher,  by  re- 
moving most  of  the  concaves  and  the  teeth,  which 
would  crack  the  seed.  From  8  to  12  bushels  per  acre 
is  considered  a  good  yield.  Most  of  our  seed  comes 
from  the  Southern  states. 

As  a  Feed. — Cowpeas  are  usually  fed  as  hay, 
the  same  as  alfalfa  or  clover.  If  one  has  an  ensilage 
or  hay  cutter,  he  would  materially  increase  the  value 
of  cowpeas  by  cutting  them.  It  should  not  be  fed  as 
the  exclusive  hay  diet,  as  it  is  very  rich  in  protein,  but 
if  fed  with  other  roughage  that  is  more  carbonaceous 
in  character,  better  results  will  be  obtained  from  both 
classes  of  feed.  Green  cowpeas  are  liable  to  cause 
bloat  in  cattle  or  sheep  when  pastured  or  fed  green. 
They  make  excellent  hog  pasture  after  the  pods  have 
formed. 

As  Silage. — Cowpeas  have  been  used  success- 
fully as  a  silage  crop,  and  for  this  purpose  may  be 
grown  separately  or  planted  with  the  corn  and  har- 
vested at  the  same  time  as  the  corn.  In  addition,  cow- 
peas  not  only  furnish  more  variety,  but  raise  the  pro- 
tein content  of  the  silage  and  make  it  more  valuable 
for  feeding  purposes. 

Alfalfa  After  Cowpeas. — The  soil  on  which  cow- 
peas  have  been  grown,  being  free  from  weeds,  is  in 
an  almost  ideal  condition  for  fall  seeding  of  alfalfa 


384  PROFITABLE  STOCK   FEEDING. 

or  grass,  as  they  leave  the  soil  in  a  firm  but  mellow 
condition  and  filled  with  available  nitrogen,  so  nec- 
essary in  giving  young  plants,  especially  young  al- 
falfa, a  vigorous  start. 

SOY  BEANS. 
BY  D.  H.  OTIS. 

Under  the  conditions  existing  in  Kansas  and  Ne- 
braska, cowpeas  seem  more  adapted  for  forage,  and 
soy  beans  for  grain. 

Soy  Beans  a  Profitable  Crop. — The  soy  bean  seed 
contains  29.6  Ibs.  digestible  protein  in  every  hundred- 
weight, which  is  a  little  more  than  oil  meal.  The  av- 
erage yield  of  soy  beans  is  not  very  heavy,  and  to  the 
one  used  to  comparing  everything  with  corn  it  will 
seem  unprofitable.  The  average  yield  at  the  Kansas 
Experiment  Station  for  12  years  was  12  bushels  per 
acre,  while  corn  planted  alongside  the  beans  yielded 
31.6  bushels  per  acre,  and  Kafir  corn  43.8  bushels 
per  acre.  Comparing  these  yields  on  the  basis  of  pro- 
tein produced,  the  soy  beans  outrank  both  corn  and 
Kafir  corn.  As  soy  bean  meal  will  take  the  place  of 
oil  meal,  pound  for  pound,  and  as  the  latter  costs 
from  $20  to  $25  per  ton,  it  will  be  seen  that  soy 
beans  are,  after  all,  a  very  profitable  crop. 

Planting. — Soy  beans  can  stand  dry  weather  and 
are  not  injured  by  chinch  bugs.  Like  cowpeas,  they 
are  a  warm  weather  plant,  and  should  not  be  seeded 
until  all  possible  danger  from  frost  is  past.  They  are 
usually  planted  after  corn  planting,  and  very  fair  yieldy 
have  been  obtained  when  planted  after  wheat  or  oat 
harvest.  They  should  not  be  planted  broadcast,  but 
preferably  drilled  in  rows  from  30  to  42  inches  apart, 
with  the  beans  from  one  to  two  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
One-half  bushel  is  sufficient  seed  for  an  acre.  Surface 
planting  usually  gives  the  best  results,  although  listing 
at  times  has  been  successful.  They  can  be  planted  with 


APPENDIX.  385 

a  wheat  drill  by  closing  some  of  the  holes,  or  they 
may  be  seeded  with  the  corn  planter.  Cultivation  is 
the  same  as  for  corn. 

Harvesting  for  Grain. — The  harvesting  of  soy 
beans  should  take  place  when  the  pods  turn  brown,  and 
before  the  beans  are  quite  ripe ;  otherwise  the  pods 
will  break  open  and  the  beans  be  wasted.  The  pods 
form  very  close  to  the  ground,  and  for  this  reason  the 
harvesting  should  be  done  with  the  bean  harvester  or 
some  similar  contrivance,  as  a  cultivator  relieved  of 
its  shovels  and  having  bolted  to  the  inner  shank  of 
each  beam  a  horizontal  knife,  set  at  such  an  angle  as 
to  prevent  clogging.  As  soon  as  cut,  the  beans 
should  be  partially  cured  in  the  windrow,  and  in 
about  24  hours  should  be  cocked,  and,  if  possible, 
covered  with  hay  caps  or  canvas,  remaining  thus 
several  days  until  properly  cured. 

Threshing. — When  weather  conditions  are  un- 
favorable for  harvesting  and  the  beans  shatter,  they 
can  be  profitably  fed  by  allowing  the  hogs  to  run 
in  the  field  after  the  crop  is  removed.  The  thresh- 
ing can  be  done  with  a  common  wheat  thresher  by 
using  blank  concaves  to  prevent  the  cracking  of  the 
beans. 

Curing  the  Beans  for  Seed. — When  the  beans  are 
intended  for  seed  they  should  not  be  stored  in 
large  quantities,  but  rather  spread  over  a  large  sur- 
face, not  over  two  feet  deep;  otherwise  they  are 
liable  to  heat  and  their  germinating  power  will  be 
destroyed. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — When  it  is  desired  to  har- 
vest for  forage,  the  plants  should  be  cut  as  soon  as 
the  beans  are  well  formed,  and  cured  in  the  same 
way  as  when  harvested  for  grain. 

Soy  Beans  as  Feed. — Since  soy  beans  are  as  rich 
in  protein  as  oil  meal,  they  should  be  fed  with 
the  same  care  and  discretion  that  one  would  use 


386          PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

when  feeding  oil  meal.  In  no  case  should  soy 
beans  be  used  as  the  exclusive  grain  ration.  One- 
sixth  to  one-fifth  soy  beans  in  the  grain  is  usually 
sufficient  and  is  an  economical  feed.  Experi- 
ments at  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  with 
hogs  show  that  there  is  a  saving -of  from  13  per 
cent  to  37  per  cent  of  the  grain  required  to  produce 
a  hundred  pounds  of  gain  when  soy  beans  form  a 
part  of  the  ration.  When  practicable  soy  beans 
should  be  ground,  but  very  good  results  have  been 
obtained  by  feeding  the  beans  whole  to  hogs.  Stock 
of  all  kinds  like  them  as  a  part  ration,  but  they  are 
especially  adapted  to  young,  growing  stock  to  de- 
velop bone  and  muscle. 

Alfalfa,  etc.,  After  Soy  Beans. — Soy  beans,  like 
cow  peas,  have  a  very  beneficial  effect  on  the  soil, 
and  are  an  excellent  crop  to  precede  alfalfa,  red 
clover  and  grasses.  When  the  farmer  can  grow 
his  protein  in  the  form  of  alfalfa,  it  is  undoubtedly 
cheaper  than  the  growing  of  soy  beans,  and  on  ac- 
count of  the  small  yield  their  use  on  an  alfalfa 
farm  would  be  limited;  but  where  alfalfa  has  not 
been  a  success  and  there  is  a  lack  of  protein  in 
the  feeding  stuffs,  or  where  they  can  be  grown 
as  a  catch  crop  after  wheat  or  oats,  soy  beans  de- 
serve favorable  consideration. 

ALFALFA. 
By  E.  G.  Montgomery. 

Soil. — Any  good  corn  land  will  raise  alfalfa, 
providing  water  does  not  stand  too  near  the  surface. 
Alfalfa  is  grown  successfully  not  only  in  sandy  soil 
and  light  loam,  but  in  heavy  clay.  It  will  not  do 
in  peaty  soils  or  on  land  where  water  stands,  or 
where  the  land  is  heavily  flooded  during  the  growing 
season.  In  many  of  the  older  farming  districts 
soils  of  good  fertility  are  found  that  are,  however, 


APPENDIX.  387 

sour,  or  acid.  Alfalfa  will  not  grow  on  such  soils 
until  enough  lime  has  been  applied  to  the  soil  to 
correct  the  acidity. 

Inoculation  of  the  soil  is  very  important  in  dis- 
tricts where  alfalfa  has  never  been  grown  before. 
The  plant  will  not  succeed  unless  the  particular 
bacteria  which  form  the  nodules  on  its  roots  and 
take  the  nitrogen  from  the  air  are  present  in  the 
soil.  Inoculation  may  be  made  either  with  soil 
taken  from  an  old  alfalfa  field  or  by  the  use  of 
the  cultures  now  on  the  market  for  that  purpose. 

The  soil  should  be  prepared  very  carefully.  The 
ground  should  be  well  plowed,  then  thoroughly 
worked  down  with  harrow  and  disk  until  a  fine, 
firm  seed  bed  is  secured.  It  will  never  pay  to  half 
prepare  ground  for  alfalfa. 

Seeding. — Alfalfa  seed  is  generally  sown  alone  in 
the  West.  The  main  reason  for  this  is  that  there 
is  often  only  enough  rain  to  carry  one  crop  on  the 
land  successfully,  and  there  is  always  danger  of  hot, 
dry  weather  immediately  after  harvest.  On  rich 
soils,  in  regions  where  there  is  assurance  of  an 
abundance  of  rain  during  the  whole  season,  it  may 
be  safe  to  sow  with  a  nurse  crop.  The  seed  is  usually 
sown  at  the  rate  of  about  20  pounds  per  acre, 
though  there  are  successful  alfalfa  growers  who 
consider  15  pounds  sufficient.  Broadcast  seeding  is 
generally  considered  safer  than  drilling,  owing  to 
the  danger  of  the  young  plants  being  covered  in  the 
drill  rows  by  heavy  rains  washing  the  dirt  in.  After 
broadcasting  the  seed,  cover  with  a  harrow.  If  a 
poor  stand  is  obtained  or  if  it  kills  out  in  spots, 
parts  of  the  field  may  be  disked  early  in  the  spring 
and  resown,  the  seeds  being  covered  with  a  smooth- 
ing harrow. 

Spring  seeding  is  generally  practiced,  sowing  the 
seed  as  soon  as  the  soil  can  be  worked. 


388  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

Fall  seeding,  however,  is  coming  rapidly  into  fa- 
vor, since  the  use  of  the  land  is  not  lost  during  a 
whole  season,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  to  the 
expense  of  keeping  down  weeds.  The  greatest  ob- 
jection to  fall  seeding  is  the  fact  that  falls  are  often 
too  dry  to  insure  a  good  growth.  The  seed  should 
be  sown  at  least  six  or  eight  weeks  before  killing 
frost. 

Care. — If  spring  sown,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
keep  weeds  down  the  first  year  by  cutting 


Alfalfa.  Showing  advantage  of  early  fall  sowing.  Beginning  on 
the  left  of  the  picture  the  seed  was  sown  August  19,  Septem- 
ber 15  and  October  1,  respectively.  All  were  dug  up  April  13 
of  the  following  spring. 

with  the  mowing  machine,  setting  the  cutter  bar 
four  or  five  inches  high.  Do  this  whenever  the 
weeds  threaten  to  destroy  the  alfalfa,  which  they 
can  easily  do.  Repeat  as  often  as  necessary.  If 
there  is  much  trash  after  cutting,  rake  it  up  and  haul 
it  off.  Do  not  pasture  the  first  year. 


APPENDIX.  389 

Cutting  for  Hay. — The  second  year  two  to  four 
crops  of  hay  should  be  secured.  The  proper  time 
to  cut  is  when  about  one-tenth  to  one-fifth  of  the 
plants  are  in  bloom.  Much  more  hay  will  be  se- 
cured during  the  season  by  cutting  at  this  time 
than  later,  and  it  will  be  of  better  quality. 

The  seed  crop  is  generally  taken  from  the  sec- 
ond or  third  cutting.  It  takes  rather  dry  weather 
to  cause  the  plant  to  set  seed.  For  that  reason 
it  seldom  produces  a  profitable  seed  crop  in  a  humid 
climate,  or  when  there  is  a  large  amount  of  rain 
during  the  growing  season.  The  seed  crop  is  usu- 
ally cut  with  a  mower  and  threshed  with  a  clover 
huller  or  an  ordinary  threshing  machine. 

Thickening  the  Stand. — Disking  the  old  alfalfa 
sod  is  often  practiced  to  thicken  up  the  stand. 
The  sod  should  not  be  disked  until  it  is  at  least  two 
or  three  years  old.  The  disks  should  be  set  almost 
straight,  so  as  to  split  the  crowns  but  not  cut  the 
plants  off.  Disking  should  be  done  in  early  spring 
before  growth  starts.  It  is  usually  best  to  follow 
the  disk  with  a  smoothing  harrow. 

Manuring  the  sod  is  always  beneficial,  especially 
if  the  soil  is  very  sandy  or  poor.  Give  a  moderate 
dressing  of  well  rotted  manure  during  the  winter. 

Varieties. — Turkestan  alfalfa  gives  promise  of 
being  more  drought  resistant  than  ordinary  alfalfa, 
and  may  be  valuable  in  semiarid  regions,  but  it 
does  not  yield  so  well,  in  humid  regions.  Alfalfa 
adapts  itself  more  or  less  to  new  conditions,  and 
h  has  been  found  that  alfalfa  from  Northern-grown 
seed  is  less  subject  to  winterkilling  than  from 
Southern-grown  seed.  As  a  general  rule  seed 
should  be  procured  which  has  been,  grown  under 
conditions  similar  to  those  under  which  it  is  to  be 
sown. 


390 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


TABLES. 

By  permission  of  the  author,  the  following  tables 
are  taken  from  Henry's  "Feeds  and  Feeding:  a 
Handbook  for  the  Student  and  Farmer"  (Sixth 
Edition).  In  compounding  rations,  use  Table  II, 
which  gives  digestible  nutrients. 

Table  I.    Average  Composition  of  American  Feed- 
ing Stuffs. 

"This  table  is  mainly  from  Farmers'  Bulletin  22, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1895, 
which  in  turn  is  based  on  Jenkins  and  Winton's 
tables  in  Bulletin  n,  Office  of  Experiment  Sta- 
tions, Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington. 

"Analyses  not  from  the  source  above  mentioned 
are  in  most  cases  from  the  following:  "Zusam- 
mensetzung  der  Futterm.,  Dietrich  and  Konig; 
Farm  Foods,  Wolff,  English  edition,  Cousins ;  Woll, 
Handbook  for  Farmers  and  Dairymen;  Holland, 
Report  Massachusetts  (Hatch)  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, 1896;  Jenkins  and  Winton's  tables;  and  Bul- 
letin 87,  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station:" 


Feeding  stuffs. 

Percentage  composition. 

°t 

5*3 
*§ 

Water. 

Ash. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 

Ether 
ex- 
tract. 

CONCENTRATES — 

Barley 10.9 

Barley  meal  ........  11.9 

Barley  screenings  . . .  12.2 

Bran,  all  analyses....  11.9 

Bran,  spring  wheat. .  11.5 

Bran,  winter  wheat..  12.3 

Brewers '  grains,  wet.  75.7' 

Brewers '  grains,  dried  8.2 

Broom-corn  seed  ....  11.5 

Buckwheat    12.6 

Buckwheat  flour   ....  14.6 

Buckwheat  hulls 13.2 

Buckwheat  bran  ...  10.5 


2.4 

12.4 

2.7 

69.8 

1.8 

10 

2.6 

10.5 

6.5 

66.3 

2.2 

3 

3.6 

12.3 

7.3 

61.8 

2.8 

2 

5.8 

15.4 

9.0 

53.9 

4.0 

88 

5.4 

16.1 

8.0 

54.5 

4.5 

10 

5.9 

16.0 

8.1 

53.7 

4.0 

7 

1.0 

5.4 

3.8 

12.5 

1.6 

15 

3.6 

19.9 

11.0 

51.7 

5.6 

3 

3.4 

10.2 

7.1 

63.6 

3.0 

2 

2.0 

10.0 

8.7 

64.5 

2.2 

8 

1.0 

6.9 

0.3 

75.8 

1.4 

4 

2.2 

4.6 

43.5 

35.3 

1.1 

2 

3.0 

12.4 

31.9 

38.8 

3.3 

2 

APPENDIX. 


391 


TABLE    I. — AVERAGE    COMPOSITION   OF    AMERICAN   FEEDING 
STUFFS. — Continued. 


Feeding  stuffs. 

Percentage  composition. 

1  No.  of  1 
|  analyses.  1 

Water. 

Ash. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 

Ether 
ex- 
tract. 

CONCENTRATES  —  Cont 

!• 

Buckwheat  shorts   .  .  . 

11.1 

5.1 

27.1 

8.3 

40.8 

7.6 

2 

Buckwheat  middlings. 

13.2 

4.8 

28.9 

4.1 

41.9 

7.1 

3 

Cocoanut  cake  

10.3 

5.9 

19.7 

14.4 

38.7 

11.0 

Corn,  dent  

10.6 

1.5 

10.3 

2.2 

70.4 

5.0 

86 

Corn,  flint    

11.3 

1.4 

10.5 

1.7 

70.1 

5.0 

68 

Corn,  sweet    

8.8 

1.9 

11.6 

2.8 

66.8 

8.1 

26 

Corn  meal    

15.0 

1.4 

9.2 

1.9 

68.7 

3.8 

77 

Corn   cob    

10.7 

1.4 

2.4 

30.1 

54.9 

0.5 

18 

Corn  and  cob  meal.  . 

15.1 

1.5 

8.5 

6.6 

64.8 

3.5 

7 

Corn  bran    

9.1 

1.3 

9.0 

12.7 

62.2 

5.8 

5 

Corn  germ  

10.7 

4.0 

9.8 

4.1 

64.0 

7.4 

3 

Cotton  seed   

10.3 

3.5 

18.4 

23.2 

24.7 

19.9 

5 

Cotton  seed,  roasted.. 

6.1 

5.5 

16.8 

20.4 

23.5 

27.7 

2 

Cotton-seed  meal  .... 

8.2 

7.2 

42.3 

5.6 

23.6 

13.1 

35 

Cotton-seed  hulls  .... 

U.I 

2.8 

4.2 

46.3 

33.4 

2.2 

20 

Cotton-seed        kernels 

(without  hulls)    ... 

6.2 

4.7 

31.2 

3.7 

17.6 

36.6 

2 

Cowpea   

14.8 

3.2 

20.8 

4.1 

55.7 

1.4 

5 

Cream  gluten   

8.1 

0.7 

36.1 

1.3 

39.0 

14.8 

3 

Dried  starch  and  su- 

gar feed  

10.9 

0.9 

19.7 

4.7 

54.8 

9.0 

4 

Flax  seed  

9.2 

4.3 

22.6 

7.1 

23.2 

33.7 

50 

Flax  seed,  ground.  ... 

8.1 

4.7 

21.6 

7.3 

27.9 

30.4 

2 

Flour,  dark  feeding  .  . 

9.7 

4.3 

19.9 

3.8 

56.2 

6.2 

1 

Flour,  high  grade  .... 

12.2 

0.6 

14.9 

0.3 

70.0 

2.0 

1 

Flour,  low  grade  

12.0 

2.0 

18.0 

0.9 

63.3 

3.9 

1 

Germ  meal    

8.1 

1.3 

11.1 

9.9 

62.5 

7.1 

6 

8.2 

0.9 

29.3 

3.3 

46.5 

11.8 

20 

Gluten  i'eed   

7.8 

1.1 

24.0 

5.3 

51.2 

10.6 

11 

Grano-gluten    

5.8 

2.8 

31.1 

12.0 

33.4 

14.9 

1 

Hominy  chops   

11.1 

2.5 

9.8 

3.8 

64.5 

8.3 

12 

Horse  bean  

11.3 

3.8 

26.6 

7.2 

50.1 

1.0 

1 

Hungarian  grass  seed. 

9.5 

5.0 

9.9 

7.7 

63.2 

4.7 

1 

Kafir-corn  seed  

9.3 

1.5 

9.9 

1.4 

74.9 

3.0 

1 

Linseed      meal,      old 

9.2 

5.7 

32.9 

8.9 

35.4 

7.9 

21 

Linseed     meal,     new 

process   

10.1 

"  5.8 

33.2 

9.5 

38.4 

3.0 

14 

Maize  feed,  Chicago. 

9.1 

0.9 

22.8 

7.6 

52.7 

6.9 

3 

10.2 

5.7 

23.2 

10.7 

48.5 

1.7 

4 

Middlings  

12.1 

3.3 

15.6 

4.6 

60.4 

4.0 

32 

392 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


TABLE    I. — AVERAGE    COMPOSITION    OF    AMERICAN    FEEDING 
STUFFS. — Continued. 


Feeding  stuffs. 

Percentage  composition. 

«w  * 
0$ 

.  >. 

&l 

Water. 

Ash. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Crude 

fiber. 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 

Ether 
ex- 
tract. 

CONCENTRATES  —  Cont 

Millet  seed  

14.0 

3.3 

11.8 

9.5 

57.4 

4.0 

Oats  

11.0 

3.0 

11.8 

9.5 

59.7 

5.0 

30 

Oat  dust  

6.5 

6.9 

13.5 

18.2 

50.2 

4.8 

2 

Oat  feed  

7.7 

3.7 

16.0 

6.1 

59.4 

7.1 

4 

Oat  hulls  

7.3 

6.7 

3.3 

29.7 

52.1 

1.0 

1 

Oat  meal  

7.9 

2.0 

14.7 

0.9 

67.4 

7.1 

6 

Palm-nut  meal  

10.4 

4.3 

16.8 

24.0 

35.0 

9.5 

600 

Peanut  kernel    (with- 

out hulls)    

7.5 

2.4 

.27.9 

7.0 

15.6 

39.6 

7 

Peanut  meal  

10.7 

4.9 

47.6 

5.1 

23.7 

8.0 

2480 

Pea  meal  

10.5 

2.6 

20.2 

14.4 

51.1 

1.2 

2 

Eape-seed  cake  

10.0 

7.9 

31.2 

11.3 

30.0 

9.6 

500 

Rice  

12.4 

0.4 

7.4 

0.2 

79.2 

0.4 

10 

9.7 

10.0 

12.1 

9.5 

49.9 

8.8 

5 

Eice  hulls   

8.2 

13.2 

3.6 

35.7 

38.6 

0.7 

3 

Eice  meal  

10.2 

8.1 

12.0 

5.4 

51.2 

13.1 

2 

Eice  polish  

10.0 

6.7 

11.7 

6.3 

58.0 

7.3 

4 

Eye    

11.6 

1.9 

10.6 

1.7 

72.5 

1.7 

6 

Eye  bran    

11.6 

3.6 

14.7 

3.5 

63.8 

2.8 

7 

13.1 

0.7 

6.7 

0.4 

78.3 

0.8 

4 

Eye  shorts   

9.3 

5.9 

18.0 

5.1 

59.9 

2.8 

1 

Shorts    

11.8 

4.6 

14.9 

7.4 

56.8 

4.5 

12 

Soy  bean    

10.8 

4.7 

34.0 

4.8 

28.8 

16.9 

8 

Sorghum  seed  

12.8 

2.1 

9.1 

2.6 

69.8 

3.6 

10 

Starch    feed,   wet  

65.4 

0.3 

6.1 

3.1 

22.0 

3.1 

12 

Sunflower  seed  

8.6 

2.6 

16.3 

29.9 

21.4 

21.2 

2 

Sunflower-seed  cake.  . 

10.8 

6.7 

32.8 

13.5 

27.1 

9.1 

Wheat,  all  analyses  .  . 

10.5 

1.8 

11.9 

1.8 

71.9 

2.1 

310 

Wheat  screenings   .  .  . 

11.6 

2.9 

12.5 

4.9 

65.1 

3.0 

10 

10.4 

1.9 

12.5 

1.8 

71.2 

2.2 

13 

Wheat,  winter  

10.5 

1.8 

11.8 

1.8 

72.0 

2.1 

262 

EOUGHAGE  — 

Corn  husks,  field  cured 

50.9 

1.8 

2.5 

15.8 

28.3 

0.7 

16 

Corn  leaves,  " 

30.0 

5.5 

6.0 

21.4 

35.7 

1.4 

17 

Corn  stover,  "       " 

40.5 

3.4 

3.8 

19.7 

31.5 

1.1 

60 

Fodder  corn,"       " 

42.2 

2.7 

4.5 

14.3 

34.7 

1.6 

35 

fKafir    corn    stover, 

field  cured    

13.4 

9.3 

5.5 

27.9 

42.0 

1.7 

2 

t Average  of  Kansas  (Bulletin  103)  and  Oklahoma  (Bulletin 
37)  tests. 


APPENDIX. 


393 


TABLE    I. — AVERAGE    COMPOSITION    OP    AMERICAN    FEEDING 
STUFFS. — Continued. 


Feeding  stuffs. 

Percentage  composition. 

1  No.  of 

1  analyses.  I 

Water. 

Ash. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 

Ether 
ex- 
tract. 

EOUGHAGE.  —  Cent. 

*Sorghum,  field  cured 

94.2 

8.2 

5.8 

23.3 

55.5 

1.5 

1 

Corn  forage,  green. 

Dent  varieties   

79.0 

1.2 

1.7 

5.6 

12.0 

0.5 

63 

Dent,  kernels  glazed. 

73.4 

1.5 

2.0 

6.7 

15.5 

0.9 

7 

Flint  varieties  

79.8 

1.1 

2.0 

4.3 

12.1 

0.7 

40 

Flint,  kernels  glazed. 

77.1 

1.1 

2.7 

4.3 

14.6 

0.8 

10 

Fodder   corn,    all   va- 

rieties     

79.3 

1.2 

1.8 

5.0 

12.2 

0.5 

126 

Leaves  and  husks.  .  .  . 

66.2 

2.9 

2.1 

8.7 

19.0 

1.1 

4 

Stripped  stalks   

76.1 

0.7 

0.5 

7.3 

14.9 

0.5 

4 

Sweet   varieties    

79.1 

1.3 

1.9 

4.4 

12.8 

0.5 

21 

Ray  from  grasses. 

Barley    hay,     cut    in 

milk  

15.0 

4.2 

8.8 

24.7 

44.9 

2.4 

1 

Buttercups    

9.3 

5.6 

9.9 

30.6 

41.1 

3.5 

2 

Hay       from       mixed 

grasses    

15.3 

5.5 

7.4 

27.2 

42.1 

2.5 

126 

Italian  rye  grass  .... 

8.5 

6.9 

7.5 

30.5 

45.0 

1.7 

4 

Johnson  grass   

10.2 

6.1 

7.2 

28.5 

45.9 

2.1 

2 

Kentucky  blue  grass. 

21.2 

6.3 

7.8 

23.0 

37.8 

3.9 

10 

Kentucky  blue  grass, 

cut    when    seed    in 

milk  

24.4 

7.0 

6.3 

24.5 

34.2 

3.6 

4 

Kentucky  blue  grass, 

cut  when  seed  ripe. 

27.8 

6.4 

5.8 

23.8 

33.2 

3.0 

4 

Hungarian  grass  .... 

7.7 

6.0 

7.5 

27.7 

49.0 

2.1 

13 

Meadow  fescue   

20.0 

6.8 

7.0 

25.9 

38.4 

2.7 

9 

Mixed     grasses     and 

clovers    

12.9 

5.5 

10.1 

27.6 

41.3 

2.6 

17 

Oat  hay,  cut  in  milk 

15.0 

5.2 

9.3 

29.2 

39.0 

2.3 

1 

Orchard  grass   

9.9 

6.0 

8.1 

32.4 

41.0 

2.6 

10 

Perennial  rye  grass. 

14.0 

7.9 

10.1 

25.4 

40.5 

2.1 

4 

JPrairie   (native)    .  . 

6.8 

8.3 

6.0 

30.1 

46.3 

2.7 

3 

Eed  top,  cut  at  differ 

ent  stages  

8.9 

5.2 

7.9 

28.6 

47.5 

1.9 

9 

Bed  top,  cut  in  bloom 

8.7 

4.9 

8.0 

29.9 

46.4 

2.1 

3 

*Colorado  bulletin  93. 

^Average  of  Colorado,  Kansas  and  Nebraska  analyses, 
hay  is  variable  in  composition  because  of  mixed  grasses. 


This 


394 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


TABLE    I.— AVERAGE    COMPOSITION    OF    AMERICAN    FEEDING 
STUFFS. — Continued. 


Feeding  stuffs. 

Percentage  composition. 

1  No.  of 
1  analyses. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 

Ether 
ex- 
tract. 

HAY  FROM  GRASSES. — Cont. 

Eowen  (mixed)    16.6 

Salt-marsh  hay   10.4 

Swamp  hay  .  . 11.6 

Timothy,  all  analyses.  13.2 
Timothy,   cut   in   full 

bloom   15.0 

Timothy,      cut      soon 

after  bloom   14.2 

Timothy,     cut     when 

nearly  ripe 14.1 

White  daisy 10.3 

Wild-oat  grass 14.3 

Fresh  grass. 

Barley  fodder   79.0 

Barnyard  millet  75.0 

Hungarian  grass 71.1 

Italian  rye  grass,  com- 
ing into  bloom ....   73.2 

Japanese  millet 75.0 

Kentucky  blue  grass.  65.1 
Meadow     fescue,      in 

bloom  69.9 

Oat  fodder 62.2 

Orchard      grass,       in 

blopm   73.0 

Pasture  grass 80.0- 

Eed  top,  in  bloom. ...   65.3 

Eye   fodder    76.6 

Sorghum  fodder 79.4 

Tall  oat  grass,  in  bloom  69.5 
Timothy,   different 

.   61.6 


Hay  from  legumes. 

Alfalfa   8.4 

Alsike  clover  9.7 

Cowpea  10.7 

Crimson  clover 9.6 

Flat  pea  8.4 

Japan  clover  11.0 

Peanut  vines  (without 

nuts)   7.6 


6.8 

11.6 

22.5 

39.4 

3.1 

23 

7.7 

5.5 

30.0 

44.1 

2.4 

10 

6.7 

7.2 

26.6 

45.9 

2.0 

8 

4.4 

5.9 

29.0 

45.0 

2.5 

68 

4.5 

6.0 

29.6 

41.9 

3.0 

12 

4.4 

5.7 

28.1 

44.6 

3.0 

11 

3.9 

5.0 

31.1 

43.7 

2.2 

12 

6.6 

7.7 

30.0 

42.0 

3.4 

2 

3.8 

5.0 

25.0 

48.8 

3.3 

1 

1.8 

2.7 

7.9 

8.0 

0.6 

1 

1.9 

2.4 

7.0 

13.1 

0.6 

2 

1.7 

3.1 

9.2 

14.2 

0.7 

14 

2.5 

3.1 

6.8 

13.3 

1.3 

24 

1.5 

2.1 

7.8 

13.1 

0.5 

12 

2.8 

4.1 

9.1 

17.6 

1.3 

18 

1.8 

2.4 

10.8 

14.3 

0.8 

4 

2.5 

3.4 

11.2 

19.3 

1.4 

6 

2.0 

2.6 

8.2 

13.3 

0.9 

4 

2.0 

3.5 

4.0 

9.7 

0.8 

2.3 

2.8 

11.0 

17.7 

0.9 

'5 

1.8 

2.6 

11.6 

6.8 

0.6 

7 

1.1 

1.3 

6.1 

11.6 

0.5 

11 

2.0 

2.4 

9.4 

15.8 

0.9 

3 

2.1       3.1     11.8     20.2       1.2       56 


7.4 

14.3 

25.0 

42.7 

2.2 

21 

8.3 

12.8 

25.6 

40.7 

2.9 

9 

7.5 

16.6 

20.1 

42.2 

2.2 

8 

8.6 

15.2 

27.2 

36.6 

2.8 

7 

7.9 

22.9 

26.2 

31.4 

3.2 

5 

8.5 

13.8 

24.0 

39.0 

3.7 

2 

10.8    10.7    23.6    42.7      4.6        6 


APPENDIX. 


395 


TABLE    I. — AVERAGE    COMPOSITION    OP    AMERICAN    FEEDING 
STUFFS  . — Continued. 


Feeding  stuffs. 

Percentage  composition. 

INo.  of  1 
analyses.  | 

Water. 

Ash. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitro. 
gen-free 
extract. 

Ether 
ex- 
tract. 

HAY  FROM  LEGUMES. — Cont. 

Pea  vine 15.0 

Ked  clover    15.3 

Bed  clover,  in  bloom.   20.8 
Red  clover,  mammoth.  21.2 

Sanfoin    15.0 

Serradella     9.2 

Soy  bean 11.3 

Vetch    11.3 

White  clover   9.7 

Fresh  legumes. 

Alfalfa   71.8 

Alsike  clover   74.8 

Cowpea    83.6 

Crimson  clover   80.9 

Flat  pea   66.7 

Horse  bean 84.2 

Red    clover,    different 

stages    70.8 

Serradella    79.5 

Soy  bean 75.1 

Straw. 

Barley  14.2 

Buckwheat  straw  9.9 

Horse  bean 9.2 

Oat   9.2 

Oat  chaff   14.3 

Rye    7.1 

Soy  bean    10.1 

Wheat    9.6 

Wheat  chaff 14.3 

Silage. 

Apple  pomace   85.0 

Barnyard    millet    and 

soy  bean 79.0 

Corn   79.1 

Corn  and  soy  bean. .  76.0 

Cowpea  vine    79.3 

Cowpea  and  soy-bean 

vines,  mixed 69.8 


6.7 

13.7 

24.7 

37.6 

2.3 

1 

6.2 

12.3 

24.8 

38.1 

3.3 

38 

6.6 

12.4 

21.9 

33.8 

4.5 

6 

6.1 

10.7 

24.5 

33.6 

3.9 

10 

7.3 

14.8 

20.4 

39.5 

3.0 

1 

7.2 

15.2 

21.6 

44.2 

2.6 

3 

7.2 

15.4 

22.3 

38.6 

5.2 

6 

7.9 

17.0 

25.4 

36.1 

2.3 

5 

8.3 

15.7 

24.1 

39.3 

2.9 

7 

2.7 

4.8 

7.4 

12.3 

1.0 

23 

2.0 

3.9 

7.4 

11.0 

0.9 

4 

1.7 

2.4 

4.8 

7.1 

0.4 

10 

1.7 

3.1 

5.2 

8.4 

0.7 

3 

2.9 

8.7 

7.9 

12.2 

1.6 

2 

1.2 

2.8 

4.9 

6.5 

0.4 

2 

2.1 

4.4 

8.1 

13.5 

1.1 

43 

3.2 

2.7 

5.4 

8.6 

0.7 

9 

2.6 

4.0 

6.7 

10.6 

1.0 

27 

5.7 

3.5 

36.0 

39.0 

1.5 

97 

5.5 

5.2 

43.0 

35.1 

1.3 

3 

8.7 

8.8 

37.6 

34.3 

1.4 

1 

5.1 

4.0 

37.0 

42.4 

2.3 

12 

10.0 

4.0 

34.0 

36.2 

1.5 

.  . 

3.2 

3.0 

38.9 

46.6 

1.2 

7 

5.8 

4.6 

40.4 

37.4 

1.7 

4 

4.2 

3.4 

38.1 

43.4 

1.3 

7 

9.2 

4.5 

36.0 

34.6 

1.4 

•  • 

0.6 

1.2 

3.3 

8.8 

1.1 

1 

2.8 

2.8 

7.2 

7.2 

1.0 

9 

1.4 

1.7 

6,0 

11.0 

0.8 

99 

2.4 

2.5 

7.2 

11.1 

0.8 

4 

2.9 

2.7 

6.0 

7.6 

1.5 

2 

4.5      3.8      9.5     11.1       1.3 


396 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


TABLE    I. — AVERAGE    COMPOSITION   OP   AMERICAN    FEEDING 
STUFFS. — Continued. 


Feeding  stuffs. 

Percentage  composition. 

1  No.  of 

1  analyses.  I 

Water. 

Ash. 

Pro- 

tein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 

Ether 
ex- 
tract. 

SILAGE.  —  Cont. 

50.1 

3.5 

5.9 

13.0 

26.0 

1.6 

1 

Red  clover  

72.0 

2.6 

42 

84 

11.6 

1.2 

5 

Rye  „ 

80  8 

1  6 

24 

5  8 

9.2 

0  3 

1 

76.1 

1.1 

0.8 

6.4 

15.3 

0.3 

6 

Soy  bean  

74.2 

2.8 

4.1 

9.7 

6.9 

2.2 

1 

Boots  and  tubers. 
Artichoke    

79.5 

1.0 

2.6 

0.8 

15.9 

0.2 

2 

Beets,  common  

88.5 

1.0 

1.5 

0.9 

8.0 

0.1 

9 

Beet,  man  o-el  

90.9 

1.1 

1.4 

0.9 

5.5 

0.2 

q 

Beet  sugar  

86  5 

09 

18 

0.9 

98 

01 

19 

88.6 

1.0 

1.1 

1.3 

7.6 

0.4 

8 

Parsnip  
Potato  

88.3 
78.9 

0.7 
1.0 

1.6 
2.1 

1.0 
0.6 

10.2 
17.3 

0.2 

0.1 

1?, 

Ruta-baga  

88.6 

1.2 

1.2 

1.3 

7.5 

0.2 

4 

Sweet  potato  

71.1 

1.0 

1.5 

1.3 

24.7 

0.4 

6 

90.5 

0.8 

1.1 

1.2 

6.2 

0.2 

3 

MISCELLANEOUS— 
Acorns,  fresh   
Apples 

55.3 

80.8 

1.0 
0.4 

2.5 

0.7 

4.4 
1.2 

34.8 
16.6 

1.9 
0.4 

*3 

Apple  pomace  

76.7 

0.5 

1.4 

3.9 

16.2 

1.3 

7 

Beet  pulp  

89.8 

0.6 

0.9 

2.4 

6.3 

16 

Beet  molasses  
Buttermilk  
Cabbage  

20.8 
90.1 
90.5 

10.6 
0.7 
1.4 

9.1 
4.0 
2.4 

i°5 

59.5 
4.0 
3.9 

i!i 

0.4 

35 
85 
2 

Cow  's  milk  
Cow's  milk,  colostrum 
Distillery  slops 

87.2 
74.6 
93.7 

0.7 
1.6 
0.2 

3.6 
17.6 
1.9 

0*6 

4.9 
2.7 
2.8 

3.7 
3.6 
0.9 

793 
42 
T 

Dried   sediment    from 
distillery  slops   
Dried  blood   
Dried  fish  
Ewe  's  milk  
Goat's  milk  
Mare  's  milk   
Meat  scrap  
Prickly  comf  rey 
Pumpkin    (garden)... 
Pumpkin   (field) 

5.0 
8.5 
10.8 
81.3 
86.9 
91.0 
10.7 
88.4 
80.8 
90.9 

11.3 
4.7 
29.2 
0.8 
0.9 
0.4 
4.1 
2.2 
0.9 
0.5 

27.4 
84.4 
48.4 
6.3 
3.7 
2.1 
71.2 
2.4 
1.8 
1.3 

8.0 

i'.6 

1.8 
1.7 

36.1 

4.7 
4.4 
5.3 
0.3 
5.1 
7.9 
5.2 

12.3 

2.5 
11.6 
6.8 
4.1 
1.2 
13.7 
0.3 
0.8 
0.4 

1 
3 
6 

144 
41 

APPENDIX. 


397 


TABLE    I. — AVERAGE    COMPOSITION    OP    AMERICAN    FEEDING 
STUFFS. — Continued. 


Feeding  stuffs. 

Percentage  composition. 

INo.  of  1 
analyses.  | 

Water. 

Ash. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 

Ether 
ex- 
tract. 

2.0 

2.3 

2.6 

8.4 

0.5 

2 

0.7 

3.3 

»•• 

4.7 

0.9 

96 

0.7 

3.1 

.  .. 

5.3 

0.3 

7 

0.6 

0.6 

3.2 

11.7* 

... 

2 

1.1 

6.2 

... 

4.8 

7.1 

7 

4.0 

2.0 

4.9 

12.7 

0.8 

1 

2.4 

2.6 

2.2 

4.4 

0.4 

18.7 

44.1 

7.2 

9.4 

13.6 

*3 

0.4 

0.6 

... 

5.1 

0.1 

46 

MISCELLANEOUS. — Cont. 

Rape    84.5 

Skim  milk,  gravity..  .  90.4 

Skim  milk,  centrifugal  90.6 

Sorghum  bagasse   . . .  83.9 

Sow's  milk   80.8 

Spurry    75.7 

Sugar-beet  leaves   . . .  88.0 

fTankage 7.0 

Whey    93.8 

T^ble  II.     Average  Digestible  Nutrients  and  Fer- 
tilizing Constituents  in  American  Feed- 
ing Stuffs. 

The  data  of  this  table  for  the  digestible  nutrients 
are  derived  mainly  from  the  preceding  table  and 
digestion  coefficients  obtained  at  American  Experi- 
ment Stations.  "In  other  cases  they  are  from  Bul- 
letin 22,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington; 
Handbook  for  Farmers  and  Dairymen,  Woll;  Farm 
Foods,  Wolff  (English  edition,  Cousins)  ;  and  Zu- 
sammensetzung  der  Futtermittel,  Dietrich  and  Ko- 
nig. 

"The  fertilizing  constituents  are  principally  from 
the  Year  Book  for  1895,  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  with  additions  from 
Wolff,  Dietrich  and  Konig,  and  Bulletin  87,  New 
Jersey  Experiment  Station.  The  table,  as  published, 
is  taken  from  Henry's  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  by 
courtesy  of  the  author,  with  exceptions  as  given  in 
foot  notes. 


tBulletins:     Iowa  (65),  Indiana   (108). 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


TABLE   II. — DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS    AND   FERTILIZING   CON 
STITUENTS. — Continued. 


Name  of  feed. 

Dry 

matter 
in  100 
pounds. 

Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  pounds. 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1,000  pounds. 

Pro- 
tein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Ether 
Ex- 
tract. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 

Pot- 
ash. 

CONCENTRATES. 
Barley  

Lbs. 
.    89.1 

Lbs.   Lbs. 
8.7     65.6 
3.9      9.3 
15.7     36.3 
7.4    48.3 
7.7     49.2 
2.1     27.9 
7.4     30.4 
21.1     33.5 
22.0     33.4 
15.6     38.3 
7.9     66.7 
7.8     66.7 
8.0     66.2 
8.8     63.7 
0.4     52.5 
4.4     60.0 
7.4     59.8 
12.5     30.0 
37.2     16.9 
0.3     33.1 
18.3     54.2 
13.5     61.3 
20.6     17.1 
9.0     61.2 
25.8     43.3 
30.3     35.3 
20.4     48.4 
26.7     38.8 
8.9     62.4 
7.5     55.2 
22.4     49.3 
7.8     57.1 
29.3     32.7 
28.2     40.1 
8.2     62.7 
18.6     37.1 
8.9     45.0 
9.2     47.3 
8.9    38.4 

Lbs. 
1.6 
1.4 
5.1 
2.9 
1.8 
0.6 
1.9 
5.5 
5.4 
10.5 
4.3 
4.3 
4.3 
7.0 
0.3 
2.9 
4.6 
17.3 
12.2 
1.7 
1.1 
2.0 
29.0 
6.2 
11.0 
14.5 
8.8 
12.4 
0.9 
6.8 
1.2 
2.1 
7.0 
2.8 
0.9 
1.7 
3.2 
4.2 
5.1 

Lbs. 
15.1 
8.9 
36.2 
16.3 
14.4 
4.9 
36.4 

42^8 
32.8 
18.2 
16.5 
16.8 
18.6 
5.0 
14.1 
16.3 
31.3 
67.9 
6.9 
33.3 
31.8 
36.1 
26.5 
50.3 
57.7 
38.4 
49.8 
18.9 
16.3 
40.7 

5*4.3 

57.8 
28.9 
35.5 
20.4 
20.6 
21.6 

Lbs. 
7.9 
3.1 
10.3 

4.4 
0.7 
17.8 

2L9 
16.0 
7.0 

".6 
5.7 
12.1 
12.7 

28.8 
2.5 

21A 
13.9 
8.0 
3.3 

4.1 
5.1 
2.2 
9.8 
12.0 

1*6.6 
18.3 
5.6 
14.3 

8.5 
8.2 

Lbs. 
4.8 
0.5 
0.9 

2.1 
5.2 
12.8 

1L4 

24.0 
4.0 

e!6 

4.7 
6.8 
11.7 
8.7 
10.2 

m9 

10.3 
5.0 
0.5 

6.3 
1.5 
1.5 
4.9 
12.9 

1*3.7 
13.9 
3.5 
16.3 
3.6 
6.2 

Brewers'  grains,  wet.  24.3 
Brewers  '  grains,  dried  91.8 
Broom-corn  seed   .  .  .  85.9 
Buckwheat   87.4 

Buckwheat   hulls    .  ..  86.8 
Buckwheat  bran  89.5 
Buckwheat  shorts  .  .  .  88.9 
Buckwheat  middlings  87.3 
Cocoanut  meal  ....  -  89.7 

Corn,  all  analyses.  . 

.  89.1 
..   89.4 

.   88  7 

Corn,  sweet  

.  91.2 
.  89.3 

Corn  and  cob  meal. 

.   84.9 
.  90.9 

Cotton  seed   

.   89.7 

Cotton-seed  meal  .  . 
Cotton-seed  hulls  .  . 
Cowpea   
Dark  feeding  flour. 

.  91.8 
.   88.9 
.   85.2 
.   90.3 
.   90.8 

Germ  meal    

.   89.6 

Gluten  meal      

.   91.8 

.   91.9 

*  Gluten   feed    

.  92.2 

Grano-gluten    

.   94.3 

High-grade  flour   .  . 
Hominy  chops  

.    87.6 
.   88.9 

Horse  bean  

.    85.7 

Kafir  corn   84.8 
Linseed  meal,  old  process  90.8 
Linseed  meal,  new  process89.9 
Low-grade  flour  87.6 
Malt  sprouts  89.8 

Millet        

.   86.0 

Oats   

.  89.0 

Oat  dust  

.  93.5 

•  8.8  instead  of  8.8  is  said  to  be  more  correct  for  digestible  ether  extract,  be- 
cause the  latex  process  removes  more  oil  from  gluten  feed. 


APPENDIX. 


399 


TABLE    II. — DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS   AND   FERTILIZING   CON- 
STITUENTS.— Continued. 


Name  of  feed. 

Dry 

matter 
in  100 
pounds. 

Digestible  nutrients 
In  100  pounds. 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1,000  pounds. 

Pro- 
tein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Ether 
Ex- 
tract. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 

Pot- 
ash. 

CON  CENTRATES. — Cent. 

Lbs. 
Oat  feed  or  shorts...   92.3 

Oat  hulls   90.6 

Oat  meal    92.1 

Palm-nut  meal 89.6 

Peas   89.5 

Peanut  meal   89.3 

Bape-seed  meal  90.0 

Rice    87.6 

Rice  hulls  91.8 

Rice  bran    90.3 

Rice  polish    90.0 

Rye 88.4 

Rye  bran 88.4 

Rye   shorts    90.7 

Soja    (soy)    bean 89.2 

Sorghum  seed 87.2 

Starch   refuse    91.8 

Sugar    meal    93.2 

Sunflower  seed 92.5 

Sunflower-seed   cakes.  91.8 

Wheat    89.5 

Wheat  bran 88.1 

Wheat    bran,    spring 

wheat   88.5 

Wheat    bran,    winter 

wheat   87.7 

Wheat  middlings....  87.9 

Wheat  shorts  88.2 

Wheat    screenings...   88.4 

ROUGHAGE — 
Corn      stover,      field 

cured   59.5 

Fodder      corn,      field 

cured   57.8 

Fodder  corn,  green. .   20.7 
*  Kafir     corn  "  stover, 

field  cured 86.5 


Lbs. 

Lbs.    Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

12.5 

46.9 

2.8 

17.2 

9.1 

5.3 

1.3 

40.1 

0.6 

5.2 

2.4 

5.2 

11.5 

52.1 

5.9 

23.5 

.  .  . 

.  .  . 

16.0 

52.6 

9.0 

26.9 

11.0 

5.0 

16.8 

51.8 

0.7 

30.8 

8.2 

9.9 

42.9 

22.8 

6.9 

75.6 

13.1 

15.0 

25.2 

23.7 

7.5 

49.6 

20.0 

13.0 

4.8 

72.2 

0.3 

10.8 

1.8 

0.9 

1.6 

44.5 

0.6 

5.8 

1.7 

1.4 

5.3 

45.1 

7.3 

7.1 

2.9 

2.4 

9.0 

56.4 

6.5 

19.7 

26.7 

7.1 

9.9 

67.6 

1.1 

17.6 

8.2 

5.4 

11.5 

50.3 

2.0 

23.2 

22.8 

14.0 

11.9 

45.1 

1.6 

18.4 

12.6 

8.1 

29.6 

22.3 

14.4 

53.0 

18.7 

19.9 

7.0 

52.1 

3.1 

14.8 

8.1 

4.2 

11.4 

58.4 

6.5 

22.4 

7.0 

5.2 

18.7 

51.7 

8.7 

36.3 

4.1 

0.3 

12.1 

20.8 

29.0 

22.8 

12.2 

5.6 

31.2 

19.6 

12.8 

55.5 

21.5 

11.7 

10.2 

69.2 

1.7 

23.6 

7.9 

5.0 

12.2 

39.2 

2.7 

26.7 

28.9 

16.1 

12.9  40.1  3.4       

12.3  37.1  2.6       

12.8  53.0  3.4  26^3       9.5 

12.2  50.0  3.8  28.2     13.5 

9.8  51.0  2.2  24.4     11.7 


2.5     34.6 
1.0     11.6 


1.2     17.6 
0.4       4.1 


5.4 
1.5 


2.3     44.8      0.8 


6.3 
5.9 

8.4 


1.7     32.4       0.7     10.4       2.9     14.0 


8.9 
3.3 


*  Average  of  Kansas  and  Oklahoma  tests, 


4QO 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


TABLE   II. — DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS   AND  FERTILIZING   CON- 
STITUENTS.— Continued. 


Name  of  feed. 

Dry 

matter 
in  100 
pounds. 

Digestible  nutrients 
In  100  pounds. 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents In  1,000  pounds. 

Pro- 
tein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Ether 
Ex- 
tract. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 

Pot- 
ash. 

EOUGHAGE  —  Cont. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

*Sorghum  (cane) 

94.2 

2.5 

44.3 

0.9 

... 

... 

••• 

Fresh  grass. 

Green  barley  

21.0 

1.9 

10.2 

0.4 

... 

... 

••• 

Hungarian  grass.... 

28.9 

2.0 

16.0 

0.4 

3.9 

1.6 

5.5 

Kentucky  blue  grass. 

34.9 

3.0 

19.8 

0.8 

••• 

... 

... 

Meadow     fescue,     in 

bloom  

30.1 

1.5 

16.8 

0.4 

... 

... 

... 

Oat  fodder  

37.8 

2.6 

18.9 

1.0 

4.9 

1.3 

3.8 

Orchard      grass,      in 

27.0 

1.5 

11.4 

0.5 

4.3 

1.6 

7.6 

Pasture  grasses,  mixed 

20.0 

2.5 

10.2 

0.5 

9.1 

2.3 

7.5 

Peas  and  oats  

16.0 

1.8 

7.1 

0.2 

•  •* 

... 

... 

Peas  and  barley  .... 

16.0 

1.7 

7.2 

0.2 

«.. 

... 

... 

Eedtop,  in  bloom.  .  .  . 

34.7 

2.1 

21.2 

0.6 

... 

... 

... 

Eye  fodder  

23.4 

2.1 

14.1 

0.4 

3.3 

1.5 

7.3 

Sorghum  

20.6 

0.6 

12.2 

0.4 

2.3 

0.9 

2.3 

Timothy,        different 

38.4 

1.2 

19.1 

0.6 

4.8 

2.6 

7.6 

Hay. 

Hungarian  grass  .  .  . 

92.3 

4.5 

51.7 

1.3 

12.0 

3.5 

13.0 

Kentucky  blue  grass. 

78.8 

4.8 

37.3 

2.0 

11.9 

4.0 

15.7 

Marsh  or  swamp  hay. 

88.4 

2.4 

29.9 

0.9 

..  • 

..  . 

•  •  . 

Marsh  or  swamp  hay. 

92.1 

3.5 

44.7 

0.7 

... 

... 

... 

Meadow  fescue  

80.0 

4.2 

43.3 

1.7 

9.9 

4.0 

21.0 

Mixed  grasses  

87.1 

5.9 

40.9 

1.2 

14.1 

2.7 

15.5 

Oat   hay    

91.1 

4.3 

46.4 

1.5 

... 

... 

... 

90.1 

4.9 

42.3 

1.4 

13.1 

4.1 

18.8 

tPrairie  (native)    .  .. 

94.4 

3.7 

43.6 

0.9 

... 

... 

... 

Eedtop  

91.1 

4.8 

46.9 

1.0 

11.5 

3.6 

10.2 

Eowen  (mixed)    .... 

83.4 

7.9 

40.1 

1.5 

16.1 

4.3 

14.9 

Soy-bean    hay    

88.7 

10.8 

38.7 

1.5 

23.2 

6.7 

10.8 

Timothy    

86.8 

2.8 

43.4 

1.4 

12.6 

5.3 

9.0 

White  daisy  

85.0 

3.8 

40.7 

1.2 

... 

... 

... 

Straw. 

Barley    

85.8 

0.7 

41.2 

0.6 

13.1 

3.0 

20.9 

Oat  ..  

90.8 

1.2 

38.6 

0.8 

6.2 

2.0 

12.4 

•Colorado  Bulletin  93. 

tDigestion  coefficients  obtained  by  Colorado  Experiment  Sta- 
tion. 


APPENDIX. 


401 


TABLE    II. 


-DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS   AND   FERTILIZING   CON- 
STITUENTS.— Continued. 


Name  of  feed. 

matter 
in  100 
pounds. 

Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  pounds. 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1,000  pounds. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Carbo- 
hy. 
drates 

Ether 
Ex- 
tract. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 

Pot- 
ash. 

STRAW. — Cont. 


Lbs. 


Oat  chaff   85.7 

Eye 92.9 

Wheat   90.4 

Wheat  chaff   85.7 

Fresh  legumes. 

Alsike,  bloom 25.2 

Alfalfa  28.2 

Cowpea    . ... . ^-. 16.4 

Crimson  clover 19.1 

Bed  clover,  different 

stages v 29.2 

Soy  bean   24.9 

Legume  hay  and  straw. 

Alfalfa  91.6 

Alsike  clover    .  0 90.3 

Cowpea  89.3 

Crimson  clover 90.4 

Pea-vine  straw 86.4 

Bed  clover,  medium.  84.7 

Bed  clover,  mammoth  78.8 

Soy-bean  straw    ....  89.9 

White  clover 90.3 

Silage. 

Alfalfa   27.5 

Barnyard  millet  and 

soy  bean   21.0 

Clover   28.0 

Corn  < . .  20.9 

Corn  and  soy  bean..  24.0 

Cowpea  vine 20.7 

Grass    32.0 

Sorghum 23.9 

Soy   bean    25.8 

Roots  and  tubers. 

Artichoke   20.0 

Carrot    11.4 

Beet,  common 13.0 

Beet,  sugar 13.5 

Beet,  mangel 9.1 


Lbs.    Lbs.    Lbs.     Lbs.    Lbs. 
1.5    33.0       0.7 


Lbs. 


0.6 

40.6 

0.4 

4.6 

2.8 

7.9 

0.4 

36.3 

0.4 

5.9 

1.2 

5.1 

0.3 

23.3 

0.5 

7.9 

7.0 

4.2 

2.7 

13.1 

0.6 

4.4 

1.1 

2.0 

3.9 

12.7 

0.5 

7.2 

1.3 

5.6 

1.8 

8.7 

0.2 

2.7 

1.0 

3.1 

2.4 

9.1 

0.5 

4.3 

1.3 

4.9 

2.9 

14.8 

0.7 

5.3 

1.3 

4.6 

3.2 

11.0 

0.5 

2.9 

1.5 

5.3 

11.0 

39.6 

1.2 

21.9 

5.1 

16.8 

8.4 

42.5 

1.5 

23.4 

6.7 

22.3 

10.8 

38.6 

1.1 

19.5 

5.2 

14.7 

10.5 

34.9 

1.2 

20.5 

4.0 

13.1 

4.3 

32.3 

0.8 

14.3 

3.5 

10.2 

6.8 

35.8 

1.7 

20.7 

3.8 

22.0 

5.7 

32.0 

1.9 

22.3 

5.5 

12.2 

2.3 

40.0 

1.0 

17.5 

4.0 

13.2 

11.5 

42.2 

1.5 

27.5 

5.2 

18.1 

3.0 

8.5 

1.9 

... 

... 

... 

1.6 

9.2 

0.7 

2.0 

13.5 

1.0 

... 

... 

... 

0.9 

11.3 

0.7 

2.8 

1.1 

3.7 

1.6 

13.0 

0.7 

..  . 

..  • 

•«  . 

1.5 

8.6 

0.9 

... 

... 

... 

1.9 

13.4 

1.6 

... 

... 

... 

0.6 

14.9 

0.2 

... 

... 

... 

2.7 

8.7 

1.3 

... 

... 

... 

2.0 

16.8 

0.2 

2.6 

1.4 

4.7 

0.8 

7.8 

0.2 

1.5 

0.9 

5.1 

1.2 

8.8 

0.1 

2.4 

0.9 

4.4 

1.1 

10.2 

0.1 

2.2 

1.0 

4.8 

1.1 

5.4 

0.1 

1.9 

0.9 

3.8 

4O2 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 


TABLE 


IT. — DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS    AND 
STITUENTS. — Continued. 


FERTILIZING    CON- 


Name  of  feed. 

Dry 

matter 
in  100 
pounds. 

Digestible  nutrients 
In  100  pounds. 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1,000  pounds. 

Pro- 
tein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Ether 
Ex- 
tract. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 

Pot- 
ash. 

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS.  —  Cont. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Flat  turnip  

9.5 

1.0 

7.2 

0.2 

1.8 

1.0 

3.9 

Potato    

21.1 

0.9 

16.3 

0.1 

3.2 

1.2 

4.6 

Parsnip    

11.7 

1.6 

11.2 

0.2 

1.8 

2.0 

4.4 

11.4 

1.0 

8.1 

0.2 

1.9 

1.2 

4.9 

MISCELLANEOUS  — 

Acorns,  fresh    

44.7 

2.1 

34.4 

1.7 

•  .. 

.  .  . 

... 

Buttermilk   

9.9 

3.9 

4.0 

1.1 

4.8 

1.7 

1.6 

Cabbage    

15.3 

1.8 

8.2 

0.4 

3.8 

1.1 

4.3 

Cow  's  milk   

12.8 

3.6 

4.9 

3.7 

5.3 

1.9 

1.8 

Cow  's  milk,  colostrum 

25.4 

17.6 

2.7 

3.6 

28.2 

6.6 

1.1 

Beet  pulp  

10.2 

0.6 

7.3 

... 

1.4 

0.2 

0.4 

Beet   molasses    

79.2 

9.1 

59.5 

.0 

14.6 

0.5 

56.3 

Dried  blood   

91.5 

52.3 

.0 

2.5 

135.0 

13.5 

7.7 

Dried  fish  

89.2 

44.1 

.0 

10.3 

77.5 

120.0 

2.0 

Meat  scrap  

89.3 

66.2 

.3 

13.7 

113.9 

7.0 

1.0 

Prickly  comfrey  .... 

11.6 

1.4 

4.6 

0.2 

4.2 

1.1 

7.5 

Pumpkin,  field   ..... 

9.1 

1.0 

5.8 

0.3 

... 

.  .  . 

.  .  . 

Pumpkin,  garden  .  .  . 

19.2 

1.4 

8.3 

0.8 

1.1 

1.6 

0.9 

14.0 

1.5 

8.1 

0.2 

4.5 

1.5 

3.6 

Skim  milk,  gravity.  . 

9.6 

3.1 

4.7 

0.8 

5.6 

2.0 

1.9 

Skim  milk,  centrifugal 

9.4 

2.9 

5.2 

0.3 

5.6 

2.0 

1.9 

Spurry    

20.0 

1.5 

9.8 

0.3 

3.8 

2.5 

5.9 

Sugar-beet  leaves  .  .  . 

12.0 

1.7 

4.6 

*    0.2 

4.1 

1.5 

6.2 

*Tankage   

93.0 

31.7 

15.3 

13.6 

..  • 

..  . 

Whey    

6.6 

0.8 

4.7 

0.3 

1.5 

1.4 

1.8 

*Digestion  coefficients  for  dried  blood  used. 

Table  III.  Feeding  Standards  for  Farm  Animals. 
The  German  Feeding  Standards  have  long  been 
in  general  use  as  guides  in  compounding  rations  for 
farm  animals.  As  mentioned  in  previous  pages, 
there  is  now  a  prevailing  impression  among  Ameri- 
can investigators  that  these  standards  call  for  more 
protein  than  is  actually  needed  for  best  results. 
American  investigations  point  to  the  conclusion 
that,  for  conditions  such  as  prevail  in  this  country, 


APPENDIX.  403 

a  slight  reduction  of  protein  is  to  be  recommended, 
though  just  how  much  it  is  impossible  to  say.  A 
reduction  of  10  per  cent  does  not  seem  unreason- 
able. With  a  liberal  use  of  corn,  which  is  relatively 
high  in  fat,  American  rations  necessarily  show  a 
higher  percentage  of  fat  than  is  specified  in  the  Ger- 
man standards.  Professor  Henry,  in  his  admirable 
book  on  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  from  which  the  tables 
in  this  appendix  are  taken,  with  exceptions  as  stated 
in  foot  notes,  says : 

"The  table  of  feeding  standards  here  presented  is 
taken  from  Mentzel  &  Lengerke's  Landw.  Kalender 
for  1898.  It  comprises  the  standards  originally 
prepared  by  Dr.  Emil  v.  Wolff  for  that  publication, 
modified  by  Dr.  C.  Lehmann. 

"The  standards  are  arranged  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  farm  animals  under  normal  conditions. 
The  student  should  not  accept  the  statements  in 
the  standards  as  absolute,  but  rather  as  data  of  a 
helpful  nature  to  be  varied  in  practice  as  circum- 
stances suggest." 

"The  statements  in  the  column  headed  'Dry  Mat- 
ter' should  be  regarded  as  approximate  only,  since 
the  digestive  tract  of  the  animal  readily  adapts  it- 
self to  variations  of  10  per  cent  or  more  from  the 
standard  of  volume. 

"The  column  headed, 'Sum  of  Nutrients/ combines 
the  data  of  the  three  preceding  columns,  the  ether 
extract  being  multiplied  by  2.4  before  adding.  In 
the  first  column  of  this  division  of  the  table,  marked 
"Crude  Fiber=i,"  all  the  digestible  nutrients  are 
included.  In  the  second  division,  marked  "Crude 
Fiber=^2,"  it  is  generally  assumed  that  about  30 
per  cent  of  the  digestible  non-nitrogenous  nutrients 
consists  of  crude  fiber,  and  one-half  of  this,  or  15 
per  cent,  is  deducted.  Rations  containing  much 


404         PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

coarse  forage  should  therefore  be  somewhat  in- 
creased, because  of  their  lower  nutritive  value. 

"The  standards  are  for  animals  of  normal  size. 
Those  of  small  breeds  will  require  more  nutrients, 
amounting  in  some  cases  to  .3  of  a  pound  of  nitro- 
genous and  1.5  pounds  of  non-nitrogenous  digesti- 
ble nutrients  daily  for  1,000  pounds  of  live  weight  of 
animals. 

"Narrowing  the  nutritive  ratio  in  feeding  full- 
grown  animals  is  for  the  purpose  of  lessening  the 
depression  of  digestibility,  to  enliven  the  temper- 
ment,  or  to  increase  the  production  of  milk  at  the 
expense  of  laying  on  fat. 

"The  different  standards  given  for  the  same  class 
of  animals  according  to  performance  illustrate  the 
manner  and  direction  in  which  desirable  changes 
should  be  made. 

"In  considering  the  fattening  standards  the  stu- 
dent should  bear  in  mind  that  the  most  rapid  fat- 
tening is  usually  the  most  economical,  so  that  the 
standards  given  may  often  be  profitably  increased. 

"Standards  for  milch  cows  are  given  for  the  mid- 
dle of  the  lactation  period  with  animals  yielding 
milk  of  average  composition. 

"The  standards  for  growing  animals  contemplate 
only  a  moderate  amount  of  exercise;  if  much  is 
taken,  add  15  per  cent — mostly  non-nitrogenous 
nutrients — to  the  ration.  If  no  exercise  is  taken, 
deduct  15  per  cent  from  the  standard." 


APPENDIX.  405 

TABLE   III. — FEEDING   STANDARDS  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS. 


Per  day  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight. 

il 

Animal. 

1 

Digestible  nutrients. 

1     11 
I     P 

si 

5* 
wS 

Sum  of 
nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio,  1: 

Crude  fiber 

=  1             =/! 

1.  Oxen.                             Lbs. 
At  rest  in  stall  18 

Lbs.    Lbs. 
0.7      8.0 
1.4     10.0 
2.0     11.5 
2.8     13.0 

2.5     15.0 
3.0     14.5 
2.7     15.0 

1.6     10.0 
2.0     11.0 
2.5     13.0 
3.3     13.0 

1.2     10.5 
1.5     12.0 

2.9     15.0 

3.0     15.0 
3.5     14.5 

1.5       9.5 
2.0     11.0 
2.5     13.3 
2.5     15.5 

4.5     25.0 
4.0     24.0 
2.7     18.0 

4.0     13.0 
3.0     12.8 
2.0     12.5 
1.8     12.5 
1.5     12.0 

Lbs. 
0.1 
0.3 
0.5 

0.8 

0.5 
0.7 
0.7 

0.3 
0.4 
0.5 
0.8 

0.2 
0.3 

0.5 

0.5 
0.6 

0.4 

0.6 
0.8 
0.4 

0.7 
0.5 
0.4 

2.0 
1.0 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 

Lbs.     Lbs. 
8.9       7.5 
12.1       9.7 
14.7     12.0 
17.7     15.0 

18.7     15.6 
19.2     17.0 
19.4     17.2 

12.3     10.2 
14.0     12.2 
16.7     14.4 
18.2     16.0 

12.2     10.0 
14.2     12.0 

19.1     16.3 

19.2     16.5 
19.4     16.9 

12.0     10.0 
14.5     12.8 
17.7     15.5 
19.0 

31.2 
29.2 
22.0 

21.8     21.0 
18.2     17.0 
15.7     13.7 
15.3     12.8 
14.2     11.8 

Lbs. 
11.8 
7.7 
6.5 
5.3 

6.5 
5.4 
6.2 

6.7 
6.0 
5.7 
4.5 

9.1 

8.5 

5.6 

5.4 
4.5 

7.0 
6.2 
6.0 
6.6 

5.9 
6.3 
7.0 

4.5 
5.1 
6.8 
7.5 
8.5 

At  light  work                 22 

At  medium  work.  ...   25 
At  heavy  work  28 

%.    Fattening  cattle. 
First  period  30 

Second  period     .        .   30 

Third  period    26 

3.  Milch  cows. 
When  yielding  daily  — 
11.0  pounds  of  milk.   25 
16.6  pounds  of  milk.   27 
£2.0  pounds  of  milk.   29 
27.5  pounds  of  milk.   32 
4.  Sheep. 
Coarse  wool   20 

Fine   wool      23 

5.  Breeding  ewes. 
With  Jambs    25 

6.  Fattening  sheep. 
First  period               ..   30 

7.  Horses. 
Light   work    20 

Aledium  work    .        .  .   24 

8   Brood  sows                .  22 

9.  Fattening  swine. 
First  period            ....   36 

Second  period   32 
Third  period    25 

10.  Growing  cattle. 
Dairy  breeds. 
2-  3  150  23 
3-  6  300  24 
6-12  500  27 
12-18  700  26 
18-24  f   900  26 

406  PROFITABLE  STOCK  FEEDING. 

TABLE  III. — FEEDING  STANDARDS  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS. 


Animal. 

Per  day  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight. 

|j 

I 

Digestible  nu  rients. 

1 

g! 

Ether 
extract. 

Sum  of 
nutrients 

1  Nutritive 
ratio,  1: 

Crude  fiber 
=1         =/, 

11.  Growing   cattle. 
Beef  breeds. 

2-  3 160... 

3-  6 330... 

6-12 550... 

12-18 750... 

18-24 950... 

12.  Growing  sheep. 
Wool  breeds. 

4-6 60... 

6-8 75... 

8-11 80... 

11-15 90... 

15-20 100... 

13.  Growing  sheep. 
Mutton  breeds. 

4-6 60... 

6-8 80... 

8-11. 100... 

11-15 120... 

15-20 150... 

14.  Growing  swine. 
Breeding  stock. 

2-3 50... 

3-  5 100... 

5-  6 120... 

6-  8 200... 

8-12 250... 

15.  Growing,  fattenin 

2-  3 50..... 

3-  5 100... 

5-  6 150... 

6-8 200 

9-12 300 


Lbs.    Lbs.    Lbs.    Lbs.     Lbs.     Lbs.     Lbs. 


..  23 

4.2 

13.0 

2.0 

20.0  21.5 

4.2 

..  24 

3.5 

12.8 

1.5 

19.9  19.0 

4.7 

..  25 

2.5 

13.2 

0.7 

17.4  15.8 

6.0 

..  24 

2.0 

12.5 

0.5 

15.7  13.9 

6.8 

..  24 

1.8 

12.0 

0.4 

14.8  13.2 

7.2 

..  25 

3.4 

15.4 

0.7 

20.5  18.4 

5.0 

..  25 

2.8 

13.8 

0.6 

18.0  15.8 

5.4 

..  23 

2.1 

11.5 

0.5 

14.8  12.8 

6.0 

..  22 

1.8 

11.2 

0.4 

14.0  12.0 

7.0 

..  22 

1.5 

10.8 

0.3 

13.0  11.0 

7.7 

..  26 

4.4 

15.5 

0.9 

22.1  20.9 

4.0 

..  26 

3.5 

15.0 

0.7 

20.2  17.8 

4.8 

..  24 

3.0 

14.3 

0.5 

18.5  16.3 

5.2 

..  23 

2.2 

12.6 

0.5 

16.0  13.8 

6.3 

..  22 

2.0 

12.0 

0.4 

15.0  12.8 

6.5 

..  44 

7.6 

28.0 

1.0 

38.0 

4.0 

..  35 

5.0 

23.1 

0.8 

30.0 

5.0 

..  32 

3.7 

21.3 

0.4 

26.0 

6.0 

..  28 

2.8 

18.7 

0.3 

22.2 

7.0 

..  25 

2.1 

15.3 

0.2 

17.9 

7.5 

g  swine. 

..  44 

7.6 

28.0 

1.0 

38.0 

4.0 

..  35 

5.0 

23.1 

0.8 

30.0 

5.0 

..  33 

4.3 

22.3 

0.6 

28.0 

5.5 

..  30 

3.6 

20.5 

0.4 

25.1 

6.0 

..  26 

3.0 

18.3 

0.3 

22.0 

6.4 

INDEX 


Alfalfa  hay  for  beef  cattle,  175. 

for  chickens,  341. 

for  cows,  56. 

for  horses,  373. 

for  pigs,  284. 

for  sheep,  227. 

culture  of,  386. 
Alfalfa  pasture  for  cows,  98. 

for  pigs,  276. 

for  poultry,  33. 

for  sheep,  210. 
Animal  requirements,  10. 
Animals  dependent  upon  plants, 

12. 
Ash,  14. 

Baby  beef,  150. 

arguments  for,  150. 

feed  after  weaning  for,  153. 

feed,  the  first  winter  for,  153. 

finishing  on  grass,  154. 

heifer  calves  for,  154. 

skim-milk  calves  for,  154. 

whole-milk    calves    vs.    skim- 
milk  calves  for,  152. 
Bacon  hogs,   score-card  of,  259. 
Balanced  ration,  23. 
Barley,  93. 

for  beef  cattle,   186. 

for  horses,  368. 

for  pigs,  293. 

for  sheep,  243. 
Bedding  for  cattle,  147. 
Beef  and  milk  production  com- 
bined,  138. 
Beef  carcass,  115. 

bone,  118. 

dressed  weight,  percentage  of, 

high  priced  meat,  115. 
marbling,   119. 
meat  fiber,  120. 
quality  in  meat,  115. 
requirements  of,  115. 
Beef  cattle,  113.     (See  steers.) 
alfalfa  for,  175. 
barley  for,  186. 
bedding  for,  147. 
bran  for,  187. 
cane  for,  186. 
carcass  of,  115. 
chaffed  hay  for,  189. 
condimental    stock   foods   for, 

187. 

corn  fodder  for,  178. 
corn  silage  for,  181. 


Beef    cattle,    corn    stover    for, 

corn  substitutes  for,  186. 

cottonseed  meal  for,  187. 

crushed  corn  for,  188. 

dipping  for  lice,  149. 

early  maturity,  importance  of, 
126. 

early  maturity,  indications  of, 
127. 

easy  keepers,   130. 

evenness  of  flesh  in,  119. 

external    indications   of   gain- 
ing capacity,  121. 

feed-lot  for,  146. 

feeder   requisites,    120. 

gaining  propensity,  121. 

gains  depend  upon  type  rath- 
er than  breed,  123. 

grinding  grain  for,  188. 

high  priced  meat,  115. 

ideal  beef  steer,  128. 

Kafir  corn  for,  186. 

lean  desirable,  119. 

maturity  of,  126. 

meat  fiber,  texture  in,  120. 

oats   for,   186. 

protein  foods  for,  187. 

sale  of,  184. 

salt  for,   147. 

score-card  for,  132. 

shelter   for  stock  cattle,   145. 

shelter  problem  in,  143. 

shelter  tests,  144. 

shipment  of  cattle,  184. 

shredded  corn  fodder  for,  188. 

shredded  stover  for,  188. 

silage  for,  181. 

sorghum  for,  186. 

steer  feeding,  143. 

stock  cattle,  shelter  for,  145. 

stock  foods  for,  187. 

three-year-old     range     steers, 
183. 

two-year-old  range  steers,  174. 

types  of,  113. 

water  for,  148. 

wheat  meal  for,  186. 

when  to  sell,  184. 

yearlings,  156. 
Beet  leaves,  91. 
Beet  pulp,  89. 

for  beef  cattle,  183. 

for  sheep,  229. 
Blue  grass,  97. 
Boars,  feed  for,  271. 

types  of,  255,  258. 


407 


4o8 


INDEX. 


Bone,  8,  118. 
Bran,   84,  187. 
Breed  tests,  125. 
Brewers'  grains,  83. 
Brome  grass,  98. 
Brood  sows,  261. 

alfalfa  for,  266. 

feed  after  farrowing  for,  267. 

feed  before  farrowing  for,  265. 

large  houses  for,  264. 

pasture  for,  268. 

portable  house  for,  262. 

winter  quarters  for,  262. 
Brood  mare,  377. 
Bull,  134. 

prepotency  of,  134. 

selection  of,  134. 

Cabbages,  92. 
Calculating  rations,  28. 
Calves,  103. 

rations  for,  157. 
Cane,  87,  181,  186,  371. 
Canadian  field  peas,  84. 
Carbohydrates,   15. 
Chaffed  hay,  189. 
Cheap  roughage,  utilization  of,  5. 
Chicks,  321. 

bread  for,  322. 

brooder  houses,  for,  317. 

coops  for,  317. 

dry  food  for,  321. 

feeding  of,  321,  326. 

moist  food  for.  322. 

overfeeding,  324. 

racks  for  feeding,  324. 
Chickens,  309. 

alfalfa  for,  341. 

Asiatic  breeds,  314. 

beets  for,  341. 

bloodmeal  for,  340. 

cabbage  for,  340. 

charcoal  for,  327,  331. 

classification  of  fowls,  311. 

cleanliness,      importance     of, 
343. 

clover  for,  341. 

cockerels,  fattening,  327. 

colds,  how  prevented,  343. 

colds,  remedy  for,  318. 

corn  feeding,  dangers  of,  338. 

diarrhoea   in   chicks,   326 ;   in 
fowls,  332. 

disease  preventives,  843. 

disinfectants  for,  321. 

Douglass  mixture  for,  326. 

dust-box  for,  328. 

for  in  winter, 


fowls,  care  in  summer,  328. 

general-purpose  breeds,  312. 

grain  for,  323. 

green  food  for,  324,  340. 

grit  for,  323,  331. 

ground  bone  for,  327,  340. 

bens,  feeding  in  summer,  331 ; 


Chickens,     feeding     in     winter, 
333. 

houses  for,  333. 
indigestion,     how     prevented, 

o4o. 

industry    in    America,    future 
of,  344. 

kerosene  emulsion  for,  330. 

laying  breeds,  311. 

lice,   320,   328. 

meat  for,   340. 

meat  breeds,  314. 

Mediterranean   breeds,   311. 

method  of  feeding,  342. 

mitas,   329. 

moist  food  for,  322. 

moulting,  331. 

nest  bugs,  331. 

oyster  shell,   327,  331. 

practical  for  farmer,   309. 

protein,  animal,  321,  327.  332. 
339. 

rape  for,  331. 

salt  for,  342. 

sand  for,   331. 

setting  eggs,   315. 

shelter  for,   811. 

silage  for,  341. 

sitting  hens,  care  of,  315. 

skJra-milk  for,   321,  326,  340. 

system,  need   of  in  America, 
344. 

water  for,  S25,  343. 

water  fountains  for,  325,  343. 

wood  ashes  for,  331. 
Clover  hay  for  cows,  77. 

for  pigs,  290. 

for  lambs,  227. 

for  horses,  373. 

for  chickens,  341. 
Clover  pasture,  98. 

for  sheep,  208. 

for  poultry,  331. 
Commercial    protein    foods    for 
cows,  80. 

for  beef  cattle,  187. 
Condimental  stock  foods,  94. 

for  beef  cattle,  187. 

for  pigs,  303. 

for  poultry,   332. 
Cooking  feed  for  pigs,  305. 
Corn,  55,  67. 

increase    in    nutrients   during 
maturity,  70. 

method  of  harvesting,  72. 

time  to  harvest,  70. 
Corn  fodder  for  cows,  60. 

far  beef  cattle,  178. 

for  sheep,  235. 
Corn  silage,  60,  (see  silage.) 

economy  of  storage  of,  61. 

for  beef  cattle,  181. 

for  horses,  371. 

for  sheep,  228. 
Corn  stover  for  cows,  58. 

for  beef  cattle,  177. 

for  horses,  371. 


INDEX. 


409 


Corn  substitutes,  92. 

for  beef  cattle,  186. 

for  pigs,  293. 

for  sheep,  243. 

Cottonseed    meal   for    beef   cat- 
tle, 187. 

for  cows,  80. 

for  lambs,  227. 

for  horses,  370. 

for  pigs,  283. 
Cowpeas,   83,  381. 
Cowpea  hay,  77. 
Crude  fiber,   16. 
Crushed  corn,  188. 
Cuts  of  beef,  116. 

Dairy  bull,  score-card  for,  44. 
Dairy   cow,  37,  38. 

abusive  treatment  of,  101. 

alfalfa  hay  for,  56. 

alfalfa  vs.  commercial  protein 

foods  for,  57. 
alfalfa  pasture  for,  98. 
barley  for,  93. 
beet  leaves  for,  91. 
beet  pulp  for,  89. 
bluegrass   for,   97. 
brome  grass  pasture  for,  98. 
cabbages  for,  92. 
Canadian  peas  for,  84. 
clover  hay  for,  77. 
clover  pasture  for,  98. 
condimental    stock   foods  for, 

94. 

corn  fodder  for,  60. 
corn  for,  55. 
corn  silage  for,  60. 
corn  stover  for,  58. 
corn  substitutes  for,  92. 
cottonseed  rneal  for,  80. 
cowpeas   for,   83. 
cowpea  hay  for,  77. 
dried  molasses  beet  pulp  for, 

90. 

dried  brewers'  grains  for,  83. 
early  spring  pasture  for,  97. 
emmer  for,  93. 
feeding  standards  for,  52. 
fly  remedies  for,  99. 
fresh  water  for,  100. 
gluten  feed  for,  84. 
gluten  meal  for,  82. 
grain  on  pasture  for,  98. 
Hungarian  grass  for,  87. 
Kafir  corn  for,  93. 
legumes  for,  55. 
linseed  meal  for,  81. 
malt  sprouts  for,  83. 
middlings  for,  85. 
millet  hay  for,  87. 
nutrients  for,  49. 
nutrients    for,    influenced    by 

quantity  of  milk,  51. 
nutrients    for,    influenced    by 

per  cent  of  fat,  51. 
nutritive  ratio  for,  49. 


Dairy  cow,  oat  straw  for,  88. 

oats  for,  94. 

oil  meal  for,  81. 

prairie  hay  for,  8T. 

profitable  western  ration  for, 
76. 

proportion    of    roughness    to 
concentrates  for,  53. 

protein  foods  for,  86. 

quantity  of  foods  for,  48. 

ration  for,  76,  86. 

red  clover  for,  77. 

roots  for,  92. 

roughage  for,  87,  89. 

rye  for,  93. 

rye  pasture  for,  97. 

rye  straw  for,  88. 

salt  for,  100. 

score-card  for,  42. 

shelter  in  summer  for,  100. 

silage  for,  60. 

soiling  for,  98. 

sorghum  for,  87. 

soy  bean  hay  for,  77. 

soy  bean  meal  for,  83. 

speltz  for,  93. 

spring  pasture  for,  97. 

succulent  feeds  for,  54. 

sugar  cane  for,  87. 

summer  pasture  for,  97. 

timothy  hay  for,  87. 

variety   in   the   roughage  for, 
88. 

water  for,  100. 

wheat  bran  for,  84. 

Wheat  for,  93. 

wheat  pasture  for,  97. 

wheat  shorts  for,  85. 

wheat  straw  for,  88. 
Dairy  industry,  37. 
Dairy  type,  39. 
Digestibility,    determination   of, 

20. 

Digestible  nutrients  of  foods,  19. 
Digestive  apparatus,  19. 
Dipping  cattle,  149 ;  pige,  306. 
Disinfectants,  306. 
Dressed    weight,   percentage  of, 

Dried   molasses   beet  pulp,   90; 

for  sheep,  230. 
Dry  cows,  feeding  of,  100. 
Dry  sows,  feed  for,  269. 

Early  maturity,  126. 
Egg,  composition  of,  9. 
Emmer,  93. 

for  pigs,   294. 

for  sheep,  243. 
Energy,  source  of,  362. 
Enjoyment,  source  of,  5. 
Exercise,  36. 

Farm  animals,  living  factories,  7. 
Farmer's  cow,  136. 
Fats  in  plants,  14. 


4io 


INDEX. 


Fatty  tissues,  8. 
Feeder  requisites,  120. 
Feeding  standards,  24,  52. 
Feed-lot    for    cattle,     146;    for 

sheep,  224. 
Field  peas,  84. 
Flax  straw,  183. 
Flesh,  evenness  of,  119. 
Food  constituents,   12. 
Food  of  maintenance,  10. 
Fresh  cow,  feeding  of,  101. 

Gaining  capacity,  121. 
German  standards,  24,  52. 
Gluten  feed,  84. 
Gluten  meal,  82. 

for  pigs,  299. 
Grinding  grain  for  beef  cattle, 

for  pigs,  303. 
for  horses,  377. 
Guineas,  353. 

Hogs,  253.     (See  pigs.) 

bacon  type  of,  258. 

breeds  of,  255. 

breeding  herd  of,  261. 

digestive  capacity  of,  260. 

extent  of  industry,  253. 

lard  type  of,   255. 

score-cards  for,  255,  259. 

types  of,  253. 
Home  market  for  crops,  4. 
Hungarian  grass,  87.     (See  mil- 
let.) 
Horses,  357. 

alfalfa  hay  for,  373. 

barley  for,   368. 

bedding  for,  378. 

brood  mare,  feed  for,  376. 

cane  for,  371. 

clover  hay  for,  373. 

coach  type  of,  360. 

colts,  feed  for,  377. 

cornstalks  for,  371. 

cottonseed  meal  for,  370. 

draft  type  of,  357. 

feed  in  summer  for,  364. 

feed  in  winter  for,  368. 

grinding  grain  for,  377. 

Kafir  corn  for,  369. 

Kafir  corn  fodder  for,  371. 

millet  hay  for,  372. 

molasses  for,  369. 

oat  hay  for,  372. 

oat  substitutes  for,  366. 

oil  meal  for,  367. 

prairie  hay  for,  371. 

protein  requirements  for,  363. 

roadster,  feed  for,  375. 

roadster  type  of,  360. 

salt  for,  378. 

score-card  for,  358. 

shelter  for,   in   summer,  378. 

shelter  for,  in  winter,  378. 

sorghum  for,  371. 

Straw  for,  372. 


Horses,  watering  of,  377. 
wintering  of,  375. 
winter  rations  for,  368. 

Ideal  beef  steer,  130. 
Inferior  steer,  122. 

Kafir  corn,  93. 

for  beef  cattle,  186. 
for  pigs,  295. 
for  horses,  369. 

Labor,  distribution  of,  5. 

Lambs, 

alfalfa  hay  for,  227. 
alfalfa  pasture  for,  210. 
barley  for,  243. 
bedding  for,  223. 
beet  pulp  for,  229. 
bloat  in,  218. 
clipping,  237. 
clover  hay  for,  227. 
clover  pasture  for,  208. 
corn  fodder,  235. 
corn  silage  for,  228. 
cottonseed  meal  for,  227. 
dried  beet  pulp  for,  230. 
dried  molasses  beet  pulp  for, 

230. 

early  spring,  203. 
emmer  for,  243. 
experiment  station  tests  wifh, 

246. 

feed-lot  for,  224. 
grain  feeding  for,  203,  206. 
grain  with  clover  for,  209. 

grain  troughs  for,  209. 
ay  racks  for,  221. 
housing  facilities  for,  204. 
late,  206. 

millet  hay  for,  228. 
oats  for,  244. 
oats  and  peas  for,  219. 
oil  meal  for,  227. 
pasture  for,  208. 
prairie  hay  for,  228. 
protein  roughage  for,  227. 
quantity  of  feed  for,  232. 
range,  232. 

rape  feeding,  value  of,  215.  • 
rape  after  wheat  for,  214 ;  in 

oats,  215 ;  in  corn,  217. 
rape  pasture  for,  212. 
roots  for,    229. 
rye  straw  for,  231. 
sale  of,  238. 
salt  for,  223. 
screenings  for,  244. 
self-feeder  for, 
shock  corn  for,  235. 
shelter  for,  220. 
shredded  fodder  for,  236. 
sorghum  hay  for,  228. 
speltz  (see  emmer). 
straw  for,  223. 


INDEX. 


411 


Lambs,    sugar    beet    pulp    for, 
229. 

timothy   for,   228. 

water  for,  223. 

wheat  for,  244. 

wheat  straw  fer,  231. 

winter,  202. 

winter  rations  for,  225. 

young,  care  of,  204 
Lean  of  meat,  8,  119. 
Legumes,  55. 
Liberal  feeding,   importance  or, 

81. 

Lice,  149. 
Linseed  meal,  81. 

Maintenance  ration,  10. 
Malt  sprouts,  83. 
Meat  carcasses,  8,  104. 
Meat  as  food,  113. 
Meat  fiber,  120. 
Middlings,   85. 
Milk,  9. 

fat  of,  9. 

mineral  of,  9. 

protein  of,  9. 

sugar  of,  9. 

Milk  production,  37,  45,  48. 
Milk  production  vs.  beef  pr«duc- 

tion,  37. 

Millet,  87,  182,  293,  372. 
Mineral  matter,  14. 
Molasses,  369. 
Mules,   361. 
Mutton  type,  194. 

Nitrogenous  compounds,  16. 
Nutritive  ratio,  21. 

Oats  for  beef  cattle,  186. 

for  cows,  94. 

for  iambs,  244. 

for  pigs,  295. 

for  horses,   365. 

for  steers,  186. 
Oat  hay,  372. 
Oat  straw,  88. 

for  beef  cattle,  182. 
Oil  meal,  81. 

Palatability,  32. 
Pasture  for  cows,  97. 

with  grain  for  steers,  16o. 

for  lambs,  208. 

for  sows,  268. 

for  pigs,  275. 
Plant  oils,  14. 
Pigs,  253. 

alfalfa  hay  for,  284. 

alfalfa  hay  (last  cutting)  for, 

007 

alfalfa  pasture  for,  276. 
barley  for,  293. 
cane  seed  for,  295. 
charcoal  and  ashes  for,  30b. 
cleanliness  in  pens,  306. 
clover  hay  for,  290. 


Pigs,  clover  pasture  for,  275. 
condimental   stock  foods  for, 

303. 

cooked  feed  for,  305. 
corn  silage  for,  296. 
corn  substitutes  for,  293. 
cottonseed  meai  for,  283. 
disinfectants  for,  306. 
dipping  for  lice,  306. 
dried  blood  for,  302. 
exercise  for,  307. 
fall  pigs,  278. 

feed  for  before  weaning,  270. 
feed    for    when   first    weaned, 

274. 

frosted   wh^at  for,   294. 
gluten  meal  for,  299. 
grinding  grain  for,  303. 
hay  rack  for,  288. 
heavy  feed  of,  276. 
Jerusalem  artichokes  for,  296. 
Kafir  corn  for,  295. 
linseed  meal  for,  283,  299. 
mangel-wurzel   for,   303. 
middlings  for,  281. 
millet  seed  for,  293. 
oats  for,  295. 
oil  meal  for,  299. 
potatoes  for,   296. 
protein  foods  for.  283,  298. 
rape  for,  275. 
rutabaga  for,  303. 
rye  for,  294. 
shelter  for,  280. 
shorts  for,  281. 
skim-milk  for,  284. 
soaking  grain  for,  305. 
sorghum  seed  for,  295. 
soy  bean  meal  for,  283. 
sugar  beets  for,  296. 
summer  feed  of,  273. 
tankage  for,  301. 
water,  307. 

weight  of  to  market,  290. 
wet  vs.  dry  meal  for,  304. 
wheat  for,  294. 
wheat  screenings  for,  294. 
winter  rations  for,  281. 
Portable  hog  house,  262. 
Prairie  hay,  87. 
for   steers,   182. 
for  sheep,  228. 
for  horses,   371. 
Prepotency,   134. 
Protein,  16. 
Protein  foods,  classes  of,  86. 

when  needed,  163,  283. 
Protein  roughage  for  sheep,  227 
steers,  174. 

Quantity  of  food,  31. 
Quietness,   36. 

Range  steers,  172. 
Rape  for  sheep,  212. 
feeding  value  of,  215. 


412 


INDEX. 


Rape  for  poultry,  331. 

for  pigs,  275. 
Regularity  in  feeding,  35. 
Rye,  93. 

for  pigs,  294. 
Rye  pasture,  97. 
Rye  straw,  88,  231. 
Roots,  92,  183,  229. 

Salt  for  calves,  112. 

for  beef  cattle,  147. 

for  chickens,  342. 

for  cows,  100. 

for  sheep,  223. 

for  horses,  379. 
Score-card  beef  cattle,  132. 

for  dairy  bulls,  44. 

for  dairy  cows,  43. 

for  lard  hog,  255. 

for  bacon  hog,  259. 

for  draft  horse,  358. 

for  sheep,  196. 
Self-feeder  for  sheep,  224. 
Sheep,  191   (see  lambs). 

bloat  in,  212. 

breeding  flock.  200. 

digestive  capacity  of,  197. 

dog,  difficulty  with,   193. 

ewe,  feed  for.  203,  205. 

extensive  scale,  239. 

feeding  in  semiarid  West,  239. 

fences  for,  199. 

gestation  period  of,  202. 

housing   of,   204. 

nodular  disease  in,  248. 

outlook  for,   191. 

parasites  in,  248. 

stomach  worm  in,  248. 

temperament  of,  193. 

yearlings,   238. 
Shelter  tests,  144. 
Shoats,  274. 

feed  for,  274. 

rape  for,  275. 

clover  for,  275. 
Shock  corn,  178.  235. 
Shorts,  85,  281. 
Shredded   stover,    188. 
Silage,  60. 
Silage  fed  liberally,  74. 

for  steers,  181. 

for  chickens,  341. 
Silo,  62. 

capacity  of,  64. 

corn  best  crop  for,  67,  72. 

cost  of,  67. 

cost  of  filling,  73. 

cowpeas  for.  68. 

filling,  72. 
form  of,  63. 

location  of,  68. 

proportion    and    capacity  of, 

stage  ef  ripeness  of  corn  for, 
table  showing  capacity  of,  «6. 


Skim-milk  calves,  103. 
calf  feeders  for,  111. 
cost  of  raising,  110. 
dehorning,  111 
early  feeding  of,  104. 
fat  substitutes  for,  105. 
feeding  buckets  for,  105. 
flaxseed  meal  for,  106 
grain  feeding  of,  107,  109. 
beavy    vs.    moderate    feeding 

Ofy    10  o« 

pasture  for,  110. 
quantity  of  grain  for,  108. 
roughness  for,  110. 
salt  for,  112. 
scours  in,  104. 
shelter  for,  111. 
stanchions  for,  106. 


. 

weaning,  110. 
whole  milk  vs,  skim-milk  for, 

103. 
Snapped  corn,  180. 

'  maintainlDS'  3- 


Sore  mouths,  181. 

Sorghum  hay,  87,  181,  228,  371. 

Sorghum  seed,  93. 

Soy  bean  meal,  83. 

for   pigs,   283. 
Soy  bean  hay,  77,  384. 
Speltz    (see  emmer). 
Stable  construction  for  cows,  46. 


. 
Steers,  two-year-olds,  172.    (See 

beef  cattle.) 
beet  pulp  for,  183. 
cane  for,  181. 
corn  silage  for,  181. 
corn  stover  with  alfalfa  for, 

175. 

early  grain  feeding,  172. 
flax  straw  for,  183. 
grain  on  pasture  for,  165. 
millet  hay  for,  182. 
oat  straw  for,  182. 
prairie  hay  for,  182. 
protein   roughage  vs.   protein 

concentrates  for,  174. 
roots  for,  183. 
shock  corn  for,  178. 
snaped  corn  for,  180. 
sore  mouths  in,  181. 
sorghum  hay  for,  181. 
timothy  hay  for,  182. 
wheat  straw  for,  182. 
winter  feeding,  172. 
winter  rations  for,  172. 
Steers,  yearlings,   156. 

character  of  the   ration  for, 

162. 
fall    and    winter   feeding   of, 

161. 
fall  feeding  on  grass,  170. 


INDEX. 


413 


Steers,  yearlings,  grain  the  first 

winter  for,  157. 
grain  ration  on  grass  for,  165. 
protein  concentrates  for,  163. 
tabulated  rations  for,   160. 
Stock  foods.     (See  condimental 

stock  foods.) 
Sugar,  16. 
Swine  (see  hogs),  253. 

Timothy  hay,  87. 

or  steers,  182. 

for  sheep,  228. 
Turkeys,    346. 

blackhead,  346. 

difficulty   with,   347. 

feeding  of,  351. 

grit  for,  352. 

hepatitis  in,  346. 

profits  in,  350. 

varieties  of,  353. 


Turkeys,   vitality   of,   diminish- 
ing, 346. 

Water  for  cows,  100. 

for  calves,  112. 

for  steers,  148. 

for  sheep,  223. 

for  horses,  378. 

for  chickens,  325,  343. 

for  pigs,  307. 
Wheat,  93. 

for  beef  cattle,  186. 

for  sheep,  244. 

for  pigs,  294. 
Wheat  bran,   84. 
Wheat  shorts,  85,  281. 
Wheat  straw,  88,  182,  231. 
Winter  lambs,  202. 
Winter  milk  production,  45. 
Winter  shelter  for  cows,  45. 
Wool,  9. 
Work,   10. 


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